




LIBRARYOF CONGRESS. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



HARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



AN 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



USE OF SCHOOLS 




By THOS. W. HARVEY, A. M., 

AUTHOR OF "PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.'' 



CINCINNATI: 
WILSON, HINKLE & CO. 

PHIL'A : CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER. 
NEW YORK: CLARK & MAYNARD. 



■N0 






\»tn 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by 

WILSON, II INKLE & CO., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 
Southern District of Ohio. 

ELECTKOTYPF.P AT THE FRANKLIN TYPE FOUNDRY, CINCINNATI, 



PREFACE. 



In the preparation of this work, the aim of the author has 
been to present the subject in a style neither too difficult for- 
the beginner nor too simple for the more advanced student. 
As its name indicates, this is an elementary, not a primary 
grammar. 

Part I consists of model oral lessons, illustrating methods 
of elementary instruction in language culture. These need 
not be given in the order in which they are arranged; and, 
if it be found necessary or desirable, they may be varied or 
subdivided to adapt them to the wants and capacity of the 
pupil. With these as models, any ingenious teacher can 
readily prepare similar lessons to simplify or elucidate the 
more difficult sections in Parts II and III. 

Part II is similar to Part I in spirit and design. The 
topics, however, are more systematically arranged and devel- 
oped. Great care has been taken never to define a term or 
to enunciate a principle without first preparing the mind of 
the pupil to grasp and comprehend the meaning and use of 
the terms defined or the principles enunciated. Ideas are first 
developed by intelligent questioning and appropriate illustra- 
tions; then, clothed in words. The examples in the drill ex- 
ercises have been chosen with great care. 

Part III contains a concise yet exhaustive statement of the 
properties or modifications of the different parts of speech; 

(Hi) 



IV PREFACE. 

carefully prepared models for parsing and the analysis of com- 
plex and compound sentences — making, with the analysis 
taught in Part II, a complete and perfect system; rules of 
syntax, and cautions, with appropriate exercises in false syn- 
tax. Notes, remarks, and suggestions have been but sparingly 
introduced, as they serve rather to confuse than to assist the 
beginner. 

The author would call special attention to the synthetic 
exercises in Part II, and the exercises in false syntax in 
Part III. No thoughtful teacher will neglect or give undue 
prominence to either class of exercises. Grammatical instruc- 
tion is of little value unless its aim and end is to teach the 
pupil to detect and correct inaccuracies in the use of lan- 
guage, as well as to give forcible, elegant expression to 
thought. 

It has been said that there is no royal road to geometry. 
The same may be said of grammar. The meaning and appli- 
cation of its technical terms must be learned, sentences must 
be analyzed, words must be parsed, before the student can 
comprehend the philosophy which underlies the correct use 
of any language. The labor necessary to acquire this knowl- 
edge may be made attractive, but it can not be dispensed with, 
neither can it be materially lessened. All that is claimed for 
this work is, that it shows how this labor should be expended 
to secure the best results. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 


PAGE. 








PAGE. 


Names of Things, 


7 


Personal Pronouns, . 






46 


Teaching new Words, 


9 


Possessive * ** 






48 


Action-words, .... 


10 


Relative ' ' 
Complex Sentence, 






50 
51 


Quality- words, .... 


11 










Sentence-making, 


12 


Relative Clause, 






51 


Things seen in Pictures, . 


14 


Interrogative Pronouns, 






53 


Word-picturing, 


17 


The Adverb, 
" Adverbial Element, . 






55 
55 


Mispronounced Words, 


18 










Incorrect Expressions, 


19 


" Preposition, 






57 


Classes of Sentences, ■ 


21 


" Phrase, 

" Conjunction, 






53 
59. 


PART II. 




Compound Element, 






60 


The Senses, 


23 


The Interjection, 






62 


Definition of Object, 


23 


Classes of Sentences, 






63 


" " Word, 


24 


Principal Elements, . 






64 


Language, 


24 


Subordinate Elements, 






64 


Parts of Speech, ... 


25 






The Noun, 


25 


PART III 




The Sentence, .... 


27 


The Noun, . 


. 67 


Parts of a Sentence, . 


28 


Gender, . . . 






67 


The Noun as Predicate, . 


29 


Person, 






69 


Elements, 


31 


Number, . 






70 


The Verb, 


32 


Case, 






72 


Classes of Verbs, 


33 


Declension, 






74 


Objective Element, . 


. 33 


Parsing, . 






75 


The Adjective, .... 


36 


The Pronoun, . 






78 


" Article, ...» 


38 


Personal Pronouns, 






78 


" Participle, .... 


40 


Possessive " 






81 


" Adjective Element, . 


43 


Relative " 






82 


" Pronoun, .... 


45 


Interrogative " 

(v 


) 




85 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



False Syntax, Cautions, 
The Adjective, 

Comparison, 

Descriptive Adjectives 

Definitive " 

False Syntax, Cautions, 
The Verb, . 

Voice, 

Mode, 

Tense, 

Person and Number, 

Auxiliaries, . 

Unipersonal Verbs, 

Conjugation, 

Coordinate Forms, 

Regular Verbs, . 

Irregular Verbs, . 

Defective and Eedundant Ver 

False Syntax, Cautions, 
The Adverb, 

Comparison, . 
False Syntax, Cautions, 
The Preposition, 
The Conjunction, . 
The Interjection, . 
Simple Sentence, 
Compound Sentence, 
Complex Sentences, 



PAGE. 
87 
90 
90 
90 
91 
93 
95 



96 

98 
100 
101 
101 
101 
109 
111 
112 
bs, 115 
118 
120 
121 
123 
123 
125 
127 
12S 
129 
130 





PAGE. 


Grammatical Subject, 


132 


Logical Subject, 


132 


Grammatical Predicate, 


133 


Logical Predicate, . 


133 


Ellipsis, ..... 


133 


Abridgment, .... 


. 134 


Rules of Syntax, 


. 136 


Miscellaneous Exercises, 


140 


Questions for Review, 


. 143 



PART IV. 

Punctuation, 146 

The Comma, .... 146 
" Semicolon, . . . .148 

" Colon, 149 

" Period, 149 

" Interrogation Point, . 150 

" Exclamation Point, . . 150 

" Dash, 150 

" Brackets, .... 151 

Other Marks, 151 

PART V. 

Elementary Sounds, . . . 154 
Table of Sounds, .... 155 

Letters, 156 

Capital Letters, . . . .156 
Syllables — Words, . . . .159 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

OKAL LESSONS. 

To Teachers. — The lessons in Part I are intended to pre- 
cede the use of a book in grammatical instruction. That they 
may be useful, as well as animated and attractive, observe the 
following directions: 

1. Require prompt answers, always expressed in complete 
sentences. 

2. Require pupils to copy on their slates whatever you write 
on the blackboard. 

3. Correct with great care all errors in pronunciation, spelling, 
punctuation, and the use of capital letters. 

LESSON I. 

1. Names of Things. 

Teacher [taking a book from his desk). — What is this ? 
Pupils. — That is a book. 

The teacher writes this answer on the blackboard : the pupils 
copy it on their slates. 

T. [Pointing to the word "book"). — Is that a book? 
P. — No : that is a word. 

T. — That is right. It is a word used as the name of a thing. 
Mary, you may bring me a book. James, you may point to 

C7\ 



8 . ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

the word "book". Now, observe that Mary has brought me 
a thing we call a book, and James has pointed to its name. 

Call the attention of your pupils, in a similar manner, to an 
inkstand, a pen, a bell, a crayon, a pencil, a slate, a ruler. 

T.— Write these names on your slates, in columns, as I 
write them on the blackboard : 

Book. Crayon. 

Inkstand. Pencil. 

Pen. Slate. 

Bell. Kuler. 

T. — With what does each word commence ? 
P. — Each word commences with a capital letter. 
T. — What is placed after each word ? 
P.— A period is placed after each word. 
T. — What are these words? 
P. — They are names of things. 

Write, in columns, the names of all objects in the school-room. 
Let the pupils give the names of objects in the kitchen — in the 
sitting-room — in the parlor — also, the names of objects seen on 
their way to school. 

Write six names of things thai may be known by the sense of sight. 

Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of hearing. 

Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of touch. 

Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of taste. 

Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of smell. 

Talk with your pupils about the things whose names are given. 
Encourage them to tell what they know of their uses— of the 
places where they are found, etc. Let them write sentences like 
these: "Pepper grows in the East Indies." "Oranges grow in 
Florida." "Quinine has a bitter taste." "I heard an owl hoot." 
Pay particular attention to the spelling of these sentences. See 
that every word is correctly spelled; that each sentence and every 
proper name begins with a capital letter, and that a period is 
placed at the end of each sentence. 



ORAL LESSONS. 9 

Remember that the object of these lessons is not to give in- 
struction in matters of science, but to lead pupils to observe things, 
and to teach them how to express their thoughts in correct 
language. 

LESSON II. 

Teacher. — We have written the names of five kinds of 
things. One kind we know by the sense of sight ; another, by 
the sense of touch or feeling ; another, by the sense of hearing ; 
another, by the sense of taste ; another, by the sense of smell. 
Seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, and smelling are called the five 
senses. What are the five senses? 

Pupils. — The iiye senses are seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, 
and smelling. 

T. — Any thing which we can see, feel, hear, taste, or smell 
is called matter. What is matter? 

P. — Matter is any thing that we can see, feel, hear, taste, 
or smell. 

T. — Write this on your slates. Now repeat it in concert. 
Those things which are made of matter are called material 
things. Do you know what material means ? 

P.— We do not. 

T. — It means composed of matter. What, then, are material 
things? 

P. — Things composed of matter are material things. 

T. — Write this answer on your slates. What kind of thing- 
is this pencil ? 

P. — It is a material thing. 

T. — Why is it a material thing ? 

P. — Because it is composed of matter. 

T. — How do you know it is composed of matter? 

P. — Because we can see it and feel it. 

T. — How many new words have you learned in this lesson? 

P. — We have learned three new words. 



10 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

T. — What are they ? 

P. — They are senses, matter, and material. 

T. — What are the five senses? 

Pupils answer the question, and then define matter and 
material. 

In this lesson is exemplified a method of teaching the meaning 
and use of new words, or words with which pupils are not familiar. 
When teaching the name of an object not familiarly known, ex- 
hibit the object, or a picture of it, before giving its name. 

The names of parts of objects should be taught in a similar 
manner. Consult any good work on object lessons for illustrative 
exercises. 

LESSON III. 

2. Action- Words. 

Teacher. — When I say "The boys run", which word tells 
what the boys are doing ? 

Pupils. — The word "runs" tells what the boys are doing. 

T. — When I say "The dog barks", which word tells what 
the dog is doing ? 

P. — The word "barks" tells what the dog is doing. 

Write these two sentences on the blackboard. 

T. — There are a great many words which tell us what dif- 
ferent things do. Such words usually express actions. What 
is a good name for them? 

P. — Action-words is a good name. 

T. — What, then, are action-words? 

P. — Action-words are words which tell us what different 
things do. 

T. — When action -words are used with the names of things, 
they usually affirm something of those things. Do you know 
what "affirm" means? 

P — We do not. 

T. — •" Affirm" means to say. Action-words say something of 



ORAL LESSONS. 11 

things. You may now affirm the following action-words of 
appropriate things: walk, trot, cackle, ivhistle, plow, fly, play, 
jump, scratch, sing, remember, whisper, quarrel, recite. 

Pupils write on their slates, "Men walk", " Horses trot", 
" Scholars recite ", &c. 

T. — You may tell what the following things do : hens, 
geese, cats, sheep, horses, men, farmers, merchants, vessels, winds, 
trees, flowers. 

Pupils write on their slates: " Hens cackle", "Vessels sail", 
"Trees grow", &c. 

Let the pupils also tell all the actions which any specified 
object may perform : as, scholars study, scholars learn, scholars 
recite, &c; horses walk, horses trot, horses gallop, horses neigh, 
horses hick, &c. 

LESSON IV. 

3. Quality- Words. 

Teacher. — Copy on yqur slates what I write on the black- 
board. {Writes) " Oranges are sweet". What word describes 
oranges ? 

Pupils. — The word "sweet" describes oranges. 

T. — That is right. It is a word used to denote that oranges 
possess a certain quality — that of being sweet. Now, place the 
word "ripe" before "oranges". Norman, you may read what 
you have written. 

Jforman. — "Eipe oranges are sweet." 

t. — What other word here describes oranges by denoting 
some quality? 

P. — The word "ripe" describes oranges. 

T. — As both of these words — ripe and sweet — denote qual- 
ity, what will be a good name for them ? 

P. — Quality-words will be a good name. 

T. — Is "sweet" placed before or after "oranges"? 

P — It is placed after "oranges". 



12 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

T. — Where is the word "ripe" placed? 

P. — It is placed before "oranges". 

T. — Where may quality-words be placed, then? 

ff». — They may be placed both before and after the names 
they describe. 

T. — Write all the appropriate quality-words you can think 
of before the word "apples". 

Pupils write : Sour apples, sweet apples, pleasant apples, large 
apples, small apples, sound apples, rotten apples, &c. 

T. — Write all the appropriate quality-words you can think 
of after the word "ice". L 

Pupils write: Ice is cold, ice is heavy, ice is solid, &c. 

T. — When a quality-word is written after the name it de- 
scribes, a word or group of words is usually placed between it 
and that name. What word is thus used in the sentences you 
have just written? 

P. — The word "is" is thus used. 

T. — When the word "is" or some similar word is placed 
between a quality-word and the namfe it describes, the quality- 
word is said to be affirmed of the name. 

Write the following quality-words before appropriate names : 
Bound, square, large, small, light, heavy, red, yellow, green, 
smooth, rough, dark, muddy, pretty, sweet. 
Model. — A round table. 

Write the same words after appropriate names. 
Model. — The table is round. 

LESSON V. 
4. Sentence-Making. 

Teacher. — Copy these words on your slates : always, good, 
happy, are, scholars. Are these words so arranged as to express 
any meaning? 

Pupils. — They are not. 



ORAL LESSONS. 13 

T. — Arrange them so that they will express some meaning. 
A pupil. — " Good scholars .are always happy." 
T. — Arrange them so that they will ask a question? 
A pupil. — ■" Are good scholars always happy ? " 
T. — Well done. When groups of words express some mean- 
ing, they are said to make complete sense. Such groups are 
called sentences. What, then, is a Sentence f 

p. — A Sentence is a group of words making complete sense. 

If necessary, the teacher may assist the pupils in expressing 
this definition. 

T. — Arrange these words into a sentence: unknown, the, to, 

were, fire-arms, ancients. 

A pupil. — " Fire-arms were unknown to the ancients." 
T. — Arrange them so that they will ask a question ? 
A pupil. — "Were fire-arms unknown to the ancients?" 
T. — Now write a sentence containing the words we, up, sun, 

daylight Supply words necessary to make complete sense. 
A pupil. — "We were up by daylight to see the sun rise." 
T. — Very well done. Has any one a different sentence? 
A pupil. — " We got up after daylight before the sun rose." 

Let the pupils read the sentences they have written. 

T. — You may now arrange these words and groups of words, 
separated by commas, into a sentence : left, he, of the academy, 
house, for th& halls, father's, his. 

A pupil. — "For the halls of the academy, he left his 
father's house." 

T. — Has any one a different arrangement? 

A pupil. — "He left his father's house for the halls of the 
academy." 

T. — Arrange these words into a sentence, supplying neces- 
sary words : beautiful, our, garden, flowers. 

1st pupil. — "Beautiful flowers grow in our garden." 

2d pupil. — "How beautiful the flowers are in our garden!" 

3d pupil. — " Our garden is full of beautiful flowers." 



14 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

4th pupil. — "How beautiful the flowers look in our garden! " 

. This exercise may be made very interesting and attractive. 
Let the length of the sentences to be constructed be adapted to 
the age and mental development of the pupil. Select the best 
arranged of the sentences given — write it on the blackboard, and 
give reasons for preferring it to all others. 

Turning poetry into prose is an exercise which may follow this. 
Select some simple ballad; read it to your pupils; then read each 
verse slowly and distinctly, and instruct your pupils how to ex- 
press the thought or sentiment of the verse in prose, and in their 
own language. 

LESSON VI. 

5. Things Seen in Pictures. 

The teacher exhibits a picture. Suppose the principal objects 
in it to be a lady and a gentleman on horseback, a boy playing 
with a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill in the background. 

Teacher (to a pupil). — What do you see in this picture? 
Fwpii. — I see a lady and a gentleman on horseback in the 
picture. 

The teacher writes the answer on the blackboard ; the pupils 
copy it on their slates. 

Teacher (to another pupil). — What do you see in this 
picture ? 

Pupil. — I see a boy in the picture. 

Write this answer, as before. 

T. (to a third pupil). — What do you see? 

P. — I see a dog in the picture. 

Write this answer, as before. 

T. (to a fourth pupil). — What do you see? 

P. — I see a house in the picture. 

Write this answer, as before. 



ORAL LESSONS. 15 

Ask similar questions of other pupils, until all the prominent 
objects in the picture have been pointed out and named. 




T. — What is the boy doing? 

p. — The boy is playing with the dog. 

Write this answer, as before. 

T. — What makes you think the boy is playing with the dog? 

Pupils give reasons. 

T. — Into what does the gate open? 

p. — The gate opens into a lawn in front of the house. 

Write this answer, as before. 

T. — Where is the tree? 

P. — The tree is at the corner of the fence, near the gate. 

Write this answer, as before. 



16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

T. — Is there any thing else near the gate ? 

p. — There are some steps leading up to the gate. 

Write this answer, as before. 

T. — Where is the hill ? 

P. — The hill is back of the house. 

Write this answer, as before. 

T. — Silas, you may tell me what you see in the picture. 

Silas. — I see a lady and a gentleman on horseback, a boy, 
a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill, in the picture. 

T.— Pupils, you may erase the first four answers written on 
your slates, and in their place write the answer Silas has just 
given. Now see what a nice composition you have written. 
Susan, you may read what is written on your slate. 

Susan reads : " I see a lady and a gentleman on horseback, 
a boy, a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill, in the picture. The 
boy is playing with the dog. The gate opens into the lawn, 
in front of the house. The tree is at the corner of the fence, 
near the gate. There are some steps leading up to the gate. 
The hill is back of the house. 

T. — Sarah, will you point to that part of the picture which 
appears to be nearest you ? Do you know what that is called ? 

Sarah. — I do not. 

Other pupils say that they do not. 

T. — It is called the foreground. Write that word on your 
slates as I write it on the blackboard. Now pronounce it. 
Can any one now tell me what the foreground of a picture is? 

A pupil. — The foreground of a picture is that part which 
seems to be nearest us. 

This definition is written on blackboard and slates, and then 
repeated in concert. 

Teach in a similar manner the meaning of the term back- 
ground. 

T. — How many new words have you learned in this lesson? 

p. — We have learned two new words. 



ORAL LESSONS. 17 

T. — What are they ? 

P. — They are foreground and background. 

Let the pupils give the definition of these terms a second time. 

Should a painting or colored picture be used in giving this 
lesson, call attention to the different colors ; write their names, 
and compare them with similarly colored objects in the school- 
room — such as articles of dress, flowers, etc. 

LESSON VII. 
6. Word-Picturing. 

Teacher. — I will read you a short story, which I find in 
"Cowderfs Moral Lessons"- 

" In one of our large cities, a mechanic, in going to his w r ork, 
had occasion to pass a group of ragged immigrants just landed 
from a British ship. 'They appeared forlorn and destitute. 
They made no appeal for assistance, but sat silent on the side- 
walk, in their misery and squalor. The mechanic regarded them 
for a moment, and then, as if seized by a sudden impulse, drew 
his dinner, wrapped in an old newspaper, from his pocket, and 
gave it to a woman who crouched near him, to divide among 
her children. He did not wait for thanks, but hurried off." 

Now 7 , pupils, can you tell me the name of the feeling 
which led this mechanic to give his dinner to the poor im- 
migrants ? 

Pupils suggest different names ; as, pity, good-nature, &c. ; or 
say, " He pitied them " ; " He wanted to do good " ; " He was 
sorry they w^ere so poor and hungry ", &c. 

T. — The word I have in my mind, as a name for his feeling 
for them, is " compassion". The immigrants looked so forlorn 
and distressed that he felt sorry for them, and sorrow excited 
by the distress of others, is called compassion. Can you now 
tell me what compassion is ? 
, E. G.— 2. 



18 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

A pupil. — Compassion is sorrow excited by the distress of 
others. 

Write this definition on blackboard and slates; then recite it 
in concert. In review lessons, let some pnpil tell the story as 
an illustration of the meaning of the word. 

Read or relate stories which illustrate charity, honesty, courage, 
pity, benevolence, kindness, obedience, self-denial, &c. Let the words 
illustrated remain on the blackboard until each pupil thoroughly 
understands their meaning and application. 

This lesson may be given to the whole school, as a portion 
of the opening or closing exercises. 

LESSON VIII. 
7. Mispronounced Words. 

Teacher. — I will write on the blackboard what I once 
heard a boy say. ( Writes) "It is orful cold this mornin'". 
Now spell the word "orful" as he pronounced it. Spell by 
sound. 

Pupils spell : o-r, or, f-u-l, ful, orful, 

T. — Do you think there is any such word as "orful"? 

Pupils may seem undecided : different opinions may be given. 

T. — What other word sounds somewhat like it ? 

A pupil. — The word "awful" sounds somewhat like it. 

T. — Spell the word "awful" by sound. 

Pupils spell : a, aw, f-u-l, ful, awful. 

T.— That is the word he intended to use. How many will 
remember the correct pronunciation of the word " awful " ? 

All hands are raised. 

T. — What other word did the boy mispronounce ? 
p. — He mispronounced the word "morning". 

Spell both "mornin' " and "morning" by sound, calling atten- 



ORAL LESSONS. 19 

tion to the difference between the sound represented by "n" and 
that represented by "ng". 

T. — Is " awful " a proper word to be used here ? 

Pupils express different opinions. 

T. — "Very" is the word the boy should have used. He 
should have said, " It is very cold this morning ". 

Write the corrected sentence on blackboard and slates. Kead 
it, pronouncing each word slowly and distinctly — then let the 
pupils read it. 

Correct, in a similar manner, the pronunciation of the itali- 
cized words in the following 

EXERCISES. 
1. Father sold our bay hoss yesterday. 2. April comes after 
March. 3. I saw a dorg-fight. 4. Drive the keows (cows) to 
pasture. 5. That was a drefful (dreadful) mistake. 6. The school- 
marster punished me for laffin\ 7. I oncet went a miled for a 
bunch of voilets. 8. I kin (can) read words of tu (two) syllables. 

Make lists of words mispronounced by your pupils, and teach their 
proper pronunciation. 

LESSON IX. 

8. Incorrect Expressions. 

Teacher. — I once heard a boy say, "I hain't got no slate". 
Did he use correct language ? 

A pupil.— He did not. 

T. — What should he have said ? 

A pupil. — He should have said, "I have got no slate". 

T. — Do you all think that is correct language ? 

A pupil. — I do not. He should have said, "I have no 
slate". 

T. — That is right. The word "got" is unnecessary, and we 
should always omit unnecessary words. 



20 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Write the incorrect and correct expressions on the blackboard, 
and let the pupils write them on their slates. 

Teacher. — See whether you can correct this expression: 
"Give me them pencils''. 

A pupil. — It should be, " Give me those pencils ". 

T. — That is right. Before the names of things, the word 
" those" should be used instead of "them". Correct this 
expression: "Them apples are sour". 

p. — It should be, "Those apples are sour"; because 
"those" should be used instead of "them" before the names 
of things. 

T. — I once heard a saucy, ill-mannered boy say, "Old Jones 
has lots of tin". Was such language respectful? . 

A pupil. — It was not. He should have said, "Mr. Jones". 

T. — Is that all the correction you would make? 

P. — It is not. He meant to say that Mr. Jones had plenty 
of money : he should have said, " Mr. Jones has plenty of 
money", not "lots of tin". 

T. — That is right. Do you know what such language as 
this boy used is called ? 

p. — We do not. 

T. — It is called slang, which means low, vulgar language. 
Never use slang. 

Let the pupils now define slang — write the definition on black- 
board and slates, and repeat it in concert. 

EXERCISES. 
1. I can't tell you no more. 2. I am almost froze. 3. He has 
just came. 4. That excuse is all wore out. 5. I have n't saw him 
for more'n a week. 6. I wouldn't have went, if I had been in 
your place. 7. I am sure one of them sentences are wrong. 

8. There is many kinds of fame. 9. Had any one a pencil 
they are willing to lend. 10. I am e'en-a-most tuckered out. 11. 
It was not me. 12. Is that all the far that you can count? 13. My 
money is all done spent. 14. I guess she come lately. 



ORAL LESSONS. 21 

. 15. I just wanted he and Charley to see that. 16. I have ate 
all my dinner; hain't you ate your'n? 17. Him and me are 
classmates. 18. That book is his 'n. 19. Let us try and learn all 
we can. 

20. I '11 shut his peepers for him. 21. If any one strikes you, 
go for him. 22. Whar are you toting that gun, stranger? 23. 
This 'ere road is orful muddy. 24. Do n't tell nobody where I am. 
25. I live to home. 26. Watch out for the steamboat. 

27. I catched ten fish last evening. 28. Eli, he run, and John, 
he run. 29. Eggs, they is very dear. 30. When does your school 
take up ? 31. Our taters is all rottin'. 32. Is n't that are line writ 
well? 33. What's the heft of that stun? 

34. Where you gwine ? 35. I knowed what he done thar ; but 
I never let on. 36. Ghosts can't skeer me. 37. Multiply the mul- 
tiplier on to the multiplicand. 38. That 's what 's the matter. 

Observe carefully the language of your pupils, and correct all un~ 
grammatical expressions. 

Suggestion. — Usually the corrected expression only should be 
written on the blackboard. 

LESSON X. 

9. Classes of Sentences. 

Teacher. — When I say, "The window is open", I state a 
fact. What kind of sentence do I use ? 

Pupils. — You use a sentence that states a fact. 

T. — That is right. I use what is called a Declarative Sen- 
tence. Can you now tell me what a declarative sentence is ? 

A pupil. — A declarative sentence states a fact. 

T. — Write that definition on your slates. Now repeat it in 
concert. When I say, "Is the window open?" what kind of 
sentence do I use ? 

p. — You use a sentence that asks a question. 

T. — Such a group of words is called an Interrogative Sen- 
tence. Can you tell me w T hat an interrogative sentence is ? 



22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

A pupil. — An interrogative sentence asks a question. 

T. — Write that definition on your slates. Repeat it in con- 
cert. When I say, " Clarence, open the window", what kind 
of sentence do I use ? 

p. — You use a sentence that makes a command. 

T. — Such a sentence is called an Imperative Sentence. Can 
you tell me what an imperative sentence is ? 

A pupil. — An imperative sentence makes a command. 

T. — When I say, "O, that window is open again!" I ex- 
press some feeling or emotion. I then use what is called an 
Exclamatory Sentence. What is an exclamatory sentence ? 

A pupil. — An exclamatory sentence expresses some feeling 
or emotion. 

T. — Write this definition on your slates. Repeat it in con- 
cert. These are all the classes of sentences there are. How 
many are there ? 

Pupils. — There are four classes of sentences. 

T. — Repeat their names. 

p. — Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclam- 
atory. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the kinds of sentences in the following exercises : 

1. The winds bring perfumes. 2. Where is my new book? 3. 
Necessity is the mother of invention. 4. Gro to the ant, thou 
sluggard ! 5. Oh, how I trembled with disgust ! 6. Does God 
uniformly work in one way? 7. Be not forward in the presence 
of your superiors. 8. Lend me your wings ! I mount ! I fly ! 

Tell the kind of sentences in your reading lesson. Change the form 
of these sentences, from declarative to interrogative, &c. 

Suggestion. — While studying Parts II and III of this work, 
let the pupils change the form of many exercises in analysis and 
parsing. This exercise will teach them how to express different 
shades of meaning by different arrangements of the same words. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 23 



PART II. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

10. Objects. 

1. The Senses.— We have five senses : seeing, hear- 
ing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. 

We obtain a knowledge of material things by means of 
these senses. 

When we see, hear, feel, taste, or smell things, we are said 
to perceive them. 

We can not perceive things which are not material, or 
composed of matter. We are said to be conscious of such 
things. 

I drop a book upon the floor. A force called gravitation 
draws it toward the center of the earth. We can not perceive 
this force, but we are conscious of it, — that is, we know such a 
force must exist. 

We are conscious of many other things which we can not 
perceive ; as, love, hatred, joy, sorroiv. 

All these things are called objects. What, then, is an 
object f 

2. An Object is any thing we can perceive or be 
conscious of. 

When we think, we think of objects : when we talk, we 
talk about objects : when w T e write, we w r rite about objects. 



24 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

When we talk or write, we use words to express our 
thoughts. What, then, is a ivord f 

3. A Word is a syllable or combination of sylla- 
bles used in the expression of thought. 



Questions. — How many senses have we ? Name them. How 
do we obtain a knowledge of material things ? Can we perceive 
things which are not material? What is an object? What is a 
word ? 

II. Grammar. 

1. ^Language is the expression of thought by means 
of words. 

When we talk, we express our ideas by spoken words. This 
is called Spoken Language. 

2. Spolten ILaiigiiage is the expression of ideas by 
the voice. 

When we write or print our thoughts, we use letters which 
represent sounds. This is called Written Language. 

3. Written ^Language is the expression of thought 
by the use of written or printed characters. 

Different nations use different languages. What language 
do we use ? The English language. 

4. Grammar treats of the principles and usages 
of language. 

5. Englisli Grammar teaches how to speak and 
write the English language correctly. 



Questions. — What is language ? Spoken language ? Written 
language ? Grammar ? English grammar ? 
What is an object ? What is a word ? 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 25 

12. Parts of Speech. 

"Scholars study." What word is here used instead of the 
names of the persons of whom we are speaking? "Scholars." 
What word tells what scholars do f "Study." 

"Good scholars study." What word here describes schol- 
ars? "Good." 

"Good scholars study diligently." What words here tells 
how good scholars study? "Diligently." 

Words, then, not only have different meanings, but they 
are also used in different ways. 

They can be divided into classes, according to their mean- 
ing and use. 

These classes are called Parts of Speech. 

Parts of Speech are the classes into which words 
are divided according to their meaning and use. 

It is necessary to know its meaning and use in order to 
determine to which class any word belongs. 



Questions. — What are parts of speech ? What is necessary in 
order to determine the class to which any word belongs ? 

What is language ? Spoken language ? Written language ? 
Grammar ? English grammar ? 

What is an object ? What is a word ? 



13. The Noun. 

What are the words boy, girl, city, door, window, booh, desk f 
They are names. 

That is correct. They are the names of objects, not the 
objects themselves. Each word is called a noun, which means 
a name. 

What are the words house, farm, garden, dog, horse, black- 
smith, merchant f They are nouns. Why ? Because they are 
names. 



26 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

What are the words Mary, John, Washington, Chicago, Ohio, 
America? They are nouns. Why? Because they are names. 

Can the name boy be applied to all boys ? It can. Can 
the name John be applied to all boys ? It can not. Why ? 
Because boys have different names, such as Charles, Frank, 
Samuel, Clarence. Why are boys called by different names ? 
In order to distinguish one from another. 

Can the name city be applied to all cities ? It can. Is the 
name Chicago applied to all cities ? It is not. Why ? Be- 
cause it is the name of a particular city. 

There are, then, two kinds or classes of nouns : those which 
can be applied to each one of a class of objects, and those 
which are applied to a particular one only. 

The first kind are called Common Nouns : the second kind, 
Proper Nouns. 

1. A ^oun is a name; as, boy, John, railroad. 

2. A Common Xomi is a name which may be ap- 
plied to any one of a class of objects; as, bird, door, 
lightning. 

8. A Proper Noun is the name of some particular 

person, place, people, or thing; as, Susan, Rome, Mex- 
ico, Sun. 

Proper nouns should commence with capital letters. 

What kind of noun is plow ? It is a common noun. Why? 
Because it can be applied to all plows. 

What kind of a noun is New York f It is a proper noun. 
Why? It is the name of a particular place. 

Write the names of five hinds of fruit : of five kinds of grain : 
of three articles of clothing : of five games : of five bad habits : 
of six farming implements : of four trades : of six townships 
in your county : of six large cities : of five large rivers : of five 
mountains : of seven of your schoolmates. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 

What are these words? Why? Tell which are common 
and which are proper nouns. 

Tell which are common and which are proper nouns in the 

following list: 

Lake Erie, railroad, barn, Boston, Sarah, Augusta, rain, 
snow, dew, Niagara Falls, thunder, lesson, slate, Indianapolis, 
hour, minute, April, Vesuvius, volcano, Palestine, temple, 
college, church, organ, steeple, Black Sea. 

Point out all the nouns in your reading lesson, and tell which 
are common and which are proper nouns, using the fol- 
lowing 

MODEL. 

" Cicero was an orator." 

Cicero is a noun; it is a name: proper; it is the name of a 
particular person. 

Orator is a noun ; (why ?) : common ; it may be applied to 
any one of a class of objects. 



Questions. — What is a noun ? How many classes of nouns 
are there? What is a common noun? Give examples. What is 
a proper noun? Give examples. Which class should commence 
with capital letters ? 

Can you write objects? Can you write the names of objects? 
What are parts of speech ? What is language ? What an object ? 



14. The Sentence. 

What is the color of chalk? It is white. Chalk breaks 
easily : is it tough or brittle ? It is brittle. We can not see 
through it : hence we say it is opaque. What part of speech 
is the word chalk f It is a noun. Why ? 

We will join the words white, brittle, opaque with the noun 

chalk, thus : 

Chalk is white. 

Chalk is brittle. 

Chalk is opaque. 



28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Each of these groups of words is called a Sentence. 

1. A Sentence is a group of words making com- 
plete sense. 

Each group is also called a Proposition. 

2. A Proposition is a thought expressed in words. 

In writing sentences, the pupils should carefully observe 
the following directions: 

1st. Commence each sentence with a capital letter. 

2d. Spell each w^ord correctly. 

3d. Place a period [.] at the end of every sentence 
that declares something, or makes a command. 

4th. Place an interrogation point [ ? ] at the end of 
every question. 

5th. Never divide a syllable at the end of a line. 



Questions. — What is a sentence ? A proposition ? Give the 
directions for writing sentences. 

What are parts of speech ? What is language ? What language 
do the Germans use? What is an object? What is a word? 



15. Parts of a Sentence* 

In the sentence, "Chalk is white", chalk is called the Sub- 
ject; for, 

1. The Subject of a proposition is that of which 
something is affirmed. 

White is called the Predicate ; for, 

2. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is 
affirmed of the subject. 

Is is called the Copula; for, 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 

3. The Copula is a word or group of words used 
to affirm the predicate of the subject. 

The word copula means a link. It is used to join the pred- 
icate to the subject. 

In the sentence, "Ice is cold", what is the subject? "Ice." 
Why? Because it is that of which something is affirmed. 
What is the predicate? "Cold." Why? Because it is that 
which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula? "Is." 
Why? Because it is the word used to affirm the predicate 
cold of the subject ice. Why is it called the copula? Be- 
cause it links or joins the predicate to the subject. 

Point out the subject, predicate, and copula in each of the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is heavy. 3. Nero was cruel. 
4. Jane is studious. 5. Walter will be tardy. 6. Mary should 
be kiud. 7. Ellen is unhappy. 8. Martha was cheerful. 9. 
George is industrious. 

Point out the nouns in these sentences, and tell which are common 
and which are proper nouns. 



Questions. — What is the subject of a proposition ? The pred- 
icate ? The copula ? What does the word copula mean ? 

What is a sentence ? A proposition ? 

What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 

What is language ? Spoken language ? Written language ? 

What is a word? What is an object? Is thunder an object? 
Why? Is a horse an object? Why? Is love an object? Why? 

Give the directions for writing sentences. 



16. The Noun as Predicate. 

In the sentence, "Man is mortal", the predicate mortal 
denotes a quality belonging to the subject man. Words which 
express qualities may be called quality-words. Quality-words 
are very frequently used as predicates. 



30 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Nouns may be used as predicates. When they are thus 
used, they denote hind or class. 

In the sentence, "Horses are animals", what is the subject? 
"Horses." Why? What is the predicate? "Animals." Why? 
What does the word animals denote ? It denotes the kind or 
class of beings to which horses belong. What part of speech 
is it? It is a noun. Why? What is the copula? "Are." 

Affirm qualities of the following subjects : 

Fishes, apples, lead, iron, play, swimming, school, marbles, 
books, flowers, oranges, trees. 

Model. — Oranges are yellow. 

Affirm the following qualities of appropriate subjects : 

Sweet, bitter, sour, opaque, transparent, red, yellow, blue, 

hard, soft, round, square, mellow, young, old, happy, miserable. 
Model. — Sugar is sweet. 

Affirm kind or class of the following subjects : 

Sheep, eagles, hoe, rake, wheat, corn, ax, locomotive, gold, 
silver, coat, wagon, houses, oxen, river, road, table. 
Model. — Eagles are birds. 

Affirm qualities of the same subjects. 

Ascertain all the properties of five substances. Affirm them of the 
substances to tvhich they belong. 

Model. — Sugar is sweet; sugar is opaque; sugar is combus- 
tible, &c. 



Questions. —What are quality-words? Can they be used as 
predicates ? Give an example. Give an example of a noun used 
as a predicate. 

What is the subject of a proposition? The predicate? The 
copula ? 

What is a sentence ? A proposition ? 

What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 

Give the directions for writing: sentences. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 81 

17. Elements. 

We have seen that a sentence is composed of parts. These 
parts are called Elements. 

1. An Element is one of the distinct parts of a 
sentence. 

2. The Subject and the Predicate are called Prin- 
cipal Elements, because no sentence can be formed 
without them. 

3. The Copula is not called an element. It is used merely 
to affirm the predicate of the subject. 

We can separate any sentence into its elements. This is 
called Analysis. 

4. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
elements. 

Analyze the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 

"Iron is heavy." 

This is a sentence; it is a group of words making complete sense. 

Iron is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed: 
heavy is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed Oi the subject: 
is is the copula. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Indigo is blue. 2. Gold is heavy. 3. Cork is light. 

4. Flies are insects. 5. Mary was tardy. 6. Sarah is truthful. 

7. Glass is transparent. 8. Apples are plentiful. 9. Boys will 
be playful. 

10. Children should be careful. 11. Men may be impru- 
dent. 12. John can be studious. 13. Iron is useful. 14. Sil- 
ver is white. 15. Eoses are fragrant. 16. Water is heavy. 



32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

17. Violets are flowers. 18. Cherries are ripe. 19. Flowers 
may be white. 20. Axes may be sharp. 21. Julius should 
be diligent. 22. Lessons may be difficult. 23. Oxen may be 
useful. 

Point out the common and proper nouns in the above sentences. 



Questions. — What is an element? What are the principal 
elements? Is the copula an element? What is its use ? What is 
analysis ? 

What is the subject ? The predicate ? The copula ? 

What is a sentence ? A proposition ? Give the directions for 
writing sentences. 

What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 

What is an object ? What is a word ? 

What is language? Spoken language? Written language? 



18. The Yerb. 

In the sentence, "Fishes swim", what is the subject? 
"Fishes." Why? What is the predicate? "Swim." Why? 
Is there any copula expressed ? There is not. 

The predicate, then, can be affirmed of the subject directly; 
one word expressing both the copula and the predicate. 

A word which affirms something of a subject is called a 
Verb. It usually expresses action, being, or state; as, I am, 
denotes beino;: I run, denotes action: I sleep, denotes state. 



A Verb is a word which expresses action, being, or 
state ; as, I am, George writes, he dreams. 

What is the word "trot" in the sentence, "Horses trot"? 
It is a verb. Why? Because it affirms action of the subject 
"horses". 

What is the word "stand" in the sentence, "Houses stand"? 
It is a verb. Why? Because it affirms state of the subject 
"houses". 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 33 

What is the subject of the sentence, "Boys play"? "Boys." 
Why? What is the predicate? "Play." Why? What part 
of speech is the word "play"? It is a verb. Why? 

Write sentences, using the following verbs as predicates: 

Bun, limp, stand, sing, whistle, mow, reap, study, recite, 
sail, look, listen, loiter, reform, neigh, whine, pur, cackle, 
scream, quarrel, work, play, remain. 

Model. — Birds sing. 
Point out all the verbs in your reading lesson. 



Questions.— What is a verb? What does it usually express? 
What is an element ? What are the principal elements ? 
What is the subject? The predicate? The copula? 
What is a sentence ? A proposition ? 
What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 
What is a word? What is language? Grammar? English 
grammar ? 

Give the directions for writing sentences. 



19. Classes of Verbs. 

In the sentence, "Boys study", lesson, grammar, algebra, or 
some other word is required to complete the meaning of the 
predicate "study". That which tells what the boys study, 
completes its meaning, and is called an Objective Element, or 
Object. 

1. An Objective Element is a word or group of 
words which completes the meaning of a verb. 

Ex.— "Indians hunt buffaloes." The word "buffaloes" com- 
pletes the meaning of the verb "hunt", and is an objective 
element. 

Those verbs which require the addition of an object to com- 
plete their meaning are called Transitive Verbs. 
E. G.— 3. 



34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

2. A Transitive Verb requires the addition of an 
object to complete its meaning. 

Ex. — "Columbus discovered America." The verb "discovered" 
requires the addition of some word, as "America", to complete 
its meaning, and is therefore transitive. 

The object of a transitive verb is not always expressed; but 
some word different from the subject can always be made its 
object. 

Ex. — "Horses eat." The object of the predicate "eat" is not 
expressed; but some word, as hay, oats, corn, &c, can be made its 
object. 

In the sentence, "Clarence walks", no word is required fco 
complete the meaning of the verb "walks". Those verbs 
which do not require the addition of an object to complete 
their meaning are called Intransitive Verbs. 

3. An Intransitive Verb does not require the ad- 
dition of an object to complete its meaning. 

Ex. — "Horses run." The verb "run" does not require the 
addition of an object to complete its meaning. It is therefore 
intransitive. 

The copula is always a verb. 

4. A Copulative Verb is used to assert the predi- 
cate of the subject. 

Ex. — "Lambs are playful". The verb "are" is used to assert 
the predicate "playful" of the subject "lambs". It is therefore a 
copulative verb. 

Write seven sentences containing transitive verbs. 
Model. — John struck James. 

Write seven sentences containing intransitive verbs. 
Models. — Houses stand. Boys swim. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 35 

Write seven sentences containing copulative verbs. 
Model. — The weather was warm. 

Write sentences, using the following nouns as objective elements: 

Lions, elephants, wheat, oats, boats, cars, letters, books, 
churches, laws, grass, trees, mountains, sun, geography, debts, 
pictures, wood. 

Model. — Fire burns wood. 
Analyze the folloiving sentences, using this 

MODEL. 

"Scholars learn lessons." 

This is a sentence; (why?). 

Scholars is the subject; (why?): learn is the predicate; 
(why?). "Learn" is modified by lessons, an objective element. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. Jane studies botany. 3. Eli 
drives horses. 4. Horses draw wagons. 5. Men build houses. 
6. Farmers sow grain. 7. Merchants sell goods. 8. Haste 
makes waste. 9. Soldiers fight battles. 10. Cats catch mice. 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, using these 

MODELS. 
I. " The nights are chilly." 
Are is a verb; it denotes being: copulative; it is used to assert 
the predicate of the subject. 

II. "Corn grows." 
Grows is a verb; (why?) : intransitive; it does not require an 
object to complete its meaning. 

III. "Horses draw wagons." 
Draw is a verb; (why?): transitive; it requires an object to 
complete its meaning. 



86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Viola blushed. 2. Stephen was a martyr. 3. Boys may 
be useful. 4. The merchant sold goods for money. 5. Houses 
stand on the river bank. 6. Fishes swim. 7. Elihu works on 
a farm. 8. James is a clerk. 9. James reads good books. 
10. Birds build nests. 

Point out the nouns in these sentences. 

Point out the nouns and verbs in your reading lesson. 



Questions. — What is an objective element? What is a tran- 
sitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb? Is the 
object of a transitive verb always expressed? Give a sentence in 
which it is not expressed. 

What is a verb ? What is an element ? What are the principal 
elements? 

What is the subject? The predicate? The copula? A sen- 
tence ? A proposition ? Give the directions for writing sentences. 

What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 

What is a word? What is language? An object? 



20. The Adjective. 

When quality- words are joined to nouns by copulas, they 
are said to be predicated of those nouns. 

They may be written or printed in connection with nouns, 
without being joined to them by copulas; thus: white chalk, 
sour apples, a square table, good boys. 

When thus used, they modify or restrict the meaning of 
nouns, but are not predicated of them. 

Words which do not express quality may be used as modi- 
fiers of nouns. In the sentences, "This book is heavy", "That 
book is light", "Two boys were sick", "Three boys were idle", 
the words this, that, two, three, are modifiers of the nouns which 
follow them ; but they do not express any quality. This and 
that point out the nouns to which they belong : two and three 
denote number. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 

Those words which modify nouns by expressing quality, 
pointing them out, or denoting number are called Adjectives. 

1. An AdjectiTe is a word which modifies the 
meaning of a noun. 

2. There are tw T o classes of Adjectives : Descriptive 
and Definitive. 

All quality- words are Descriptive Adjectives. 

3. A Descriptive Adjective modifies a noun by ex- 
pressing some quality belonging to it; as, ripe peaches, 
bad examples, round tables. 

Pointing-out words and number-words are Definitive Ad- 
jectives. 

4. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines a noun 
without expressing any of its qualities; as, this boy, 
that house, five dollars. 

Every adjective derived from a proper noun should com- 
mence with a capital; as, American cotton, French customs. 

Place each of the following adjectives before a noun: 

Good, bad, hungry, thirsty, agreeable, healthy, dry, moist, 
warm, cold, round, square, light, heavy, hard, soft, rough, 
smooth, clean, dirty, pleasant, unpleasant, Spanish, Australian. 

Models. — Smooth ice. Clean hands. 

What kind of adjectives are these? Why? 

Place each of the following adjectives before a noun: 

This, that, these, those, such, same, another, some, yonder, 
each, every, either, neither, former, latter, both, certain, few, 
many, much, several, sundry, four, seventh, four-fold. 

Models. — Much money. Sundry books. 
What kind of adjectives are these? Why? 



38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
" Fearful storms sweep over these islands." 

Fearful is an adjective; it is a word which modifies the mean- 
ing of a noun: descriptive; it denotes a quality. 

These is an adjective; (why?): definitive; it defines without de- 
noting any quality. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Both horses are lame. 2. Eipe peaches are plentiful. 3. 
Large houses are expensive. 4. Beautiful flowers bloom in 
that garden. 5. Either road leads to town. 

6. Every man carried a square box. 7. This lesson is hard. 
8. The brave soldier received a severe wound. 9. With fleecy 
clouds the sky is blanched. 10. Bright and joyful is the 
morning. 11. The day was clear and cool. 12. A small, 
white house stood at the foot of the hill. 

Point out the nouns and verbs in the above sentences. 

Point out the adjectives in your reading lesson. 



Questions. — What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? 
A definitive adjective? What adjectives should commence with 
capitals ? 

What is an objective element ? A transitive verb ? An intran- 
sitive verb? A copulative verb? What is a verb? 

What is an element? What is the subject? The predicate? 
The copula? 

What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 

What is language ? Spoken language ? Written language ? 



21. The Article. 

When we say, U A horse was stolen", a denotes that one horse 
is meant, but it does not point out any particular horse. 

When we say, "The horse was stolen", the denotes that a 
particular horse is meant. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 39 

The words a and the, in these sentences, are definitive ad- 
jectives, because they limit nouns, without denoting any of 
their qualities. They are also called Articles. 

A and an are different forms of the same word. A is used 
when the following word begins with a consonant sound ; An, 
when the following word begins with a vowel sound. 

1. The is called the Definite Article, because it 
points out definitely the .object which it restricts. 

2. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because 
it restricts in an indefinite or general manner. 

Place a or an before the following words, and tell why it should 
be used: 

Ode, measure, cart, egg, house, honor, hearth, oven, advan- 
tage, goat, opossum, turkey, orange, humor, stand, eagle, 
vulture, elephant, memory. 

Use a or an instead of the dashes in the following sentences, and 
tell why it should be used: 

1. Temperance is — virtue. 2. The house stands on — hill. 
3. — loud report was heard. 4. Life is but — vapor. 

5. He is — honest man. 6. He has — ax to grind. 7. Fa- 
ther has bought — horse. 8. I, being — child, was — plea 
for my admission. 

Use the proper articles instead of the dashes in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. Such — law is — disgrace to any state. 2. Eepeat — first 
four lines in concert. 3. Love took up — harp of life, and 
smote on all — chords with might. 

4. — fox is cunning. 5. — days are calm. 6. I had — 
dream which was not all — dream. 7. — wise son maketh — 
glad father. 8. — rain is over and — sun shines. 9. — crime, 
not — scaffold, makes — shame. 



40 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Point out the articles in your reading lesson, using this 

MODEL. 
" The man was riding in a wagon." 
The is a definite article; it points out definitely the object which 
it restricts. 

A is an indefinite article; it restricts in an indefinite or general 
manner. 



Questions. — What words are called articles? Which is the 
definite article ? The indefinite article ? When is a used ? When 
is an used? 

What is an adjective ? A descriptive adjective ? A definitive 
adjective? What adjectives should commence with capitals? 

What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
copulative verb ? 

What is an element? What is the subject? The predicate? 
The copula ? What is analysis ? 

What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 

What is an object? What is a word? What is language? 
Grammar? English Grammar? 



22. The Participle. 

"James saw the man plowing." 

What is the subject of this sentence? Why? What is the 
predicate? Why? What is the objective element? Why? 
What words limit or restrict "man"? The words "the" and 
"plowing". What does the word "plowing" denote? It tells 
what the man was doing. Does it affirm any thing of man ? 
It does not : it modifies it like an adjective. 

The word "plowing", then, partakes of the properties of 
both a verb and an adjective. Like a verb, it expresses ac- 
tion: like an adjective, it modifies a noun. Because it par- 
takes of the properties of two parts of speech, it is called a 
Participle •, which means partaking of. 

A participle may partake, also, of the properties of a verb 
and of a noun. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 41 

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, 
partaking of the properties of a verb, and of an ad- 
jective or a noun. 

When we say, "The boy is writing ", the participle "writ- 
ing" denotes a continuance of the act: the boy is continuing to 
write. 

When we say, "The letter is written", the participle 
" written " denotes a completion of the act : the writing of the 
letter is finished. 

When we say, "Having written the letter, he mailed it", the 
words "having written" denote that the writing of the letter 
was completed before the time represented by the verb 
"mailed". 

2. There are three participles : the Present, the 
Perfect, and the Compound. 

When a participle represents the subject to which it be- 
longs as acting, it is called an active participle. When it 
represents the subject as being acted upon, it is called a 
passive participle. 

In the sentence. "The boy, laughing, ran away", the par- 
ticiple "laughing" is active: it represents the boy as acting. 

In the sentence, "The boy being punished was a truant", 
the participle "being punished" is passive, because it repre- 
ents the boy as being acted upon. 

3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance 
of action, being, or state ; as, loving, being loved. 

The present active participle always ends in ing. 

4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion 
of action, being, or state ; as, loved, been, lived. 

The perfect participle usually ends in d or ed, but fre- 
quently in n, en, or t. 



42 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

5. The Compound Participle denotes the comple- 
tion of action, being, or state, at or before the time 
represented by the principal verb ; as, u Having learned 
the lesson, he recited it." 

The " principal verb" is the verb used as copula or predi- 
cate of the sentence in which the compound participle is 
found. 

The compound participle is formed by placing having or 
having been before a perfect participle, or having been before 
a present participle ; as, having learned, having been learned, 
having been learning. 

Give the present, perfect, and compound participles of the 

following verbs: 

Eecite, answer, inquire, spell, find, help, study, grow, paint, 
hope, suffer, resemble, sit, see, go, come, arrive, enjoy, make, 
learn, demand, enchant, reconcile. 

Form sentences, using any of these participles as predicates. 
Model. — Sarah is studying her lesson. 

Point out all the participles in your reading lesson, using these 

MODELS. 
I. "The boy, laughing, ran away." 
Laughing is a participle; it is a word derived from a verb, 
and partakes of the properties of a verb and of an adjective: 
present; it denotes the continuance of an act. 

II. " The lesson, studied carefully, was recited." 
Studied is a participle; (why?): perfect; it denotes completion. 

III. " Having recited, we were dismissed." 
Having recited is a participle; (why?): compound? it de- 
notes the completion of an act before the time represented by the 
principal verb. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 43 

Questions. — What is a participle? Why is it called a par- 
ticiple? How many participles are there? Name them. When 
is a participle called active ? When passive t 

What does the present participle denote ? How does the present 
active participle end? What does the perfect participle denote? 
How does it usually end? What does the compound participle 
denote? What is the " principal verb"? How is the compound 
participle formed? 

What is the definite article? The indefinite article? When is 
a used? When is an used? What is an adjective? A descriptive 
adjective? A definitive adjective? W T hat is a verb? A transitive 
verb ? An intransitive verb ? A copulative verb ? What is an ele- 
ment? The subject? The predicate ? 

What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 



23. The Adjective Element. 

In the sentence, "Small lakes are abundant", what word 
modifies "lakes"? The adjective "small". 

In the sentence, "John's hat is torn", what word modifies 
"hat"? The noun "John's". In what manner does it mod- 
ify "hat"? It denotes that it is the hat which John owns. 

In the sentence, "Mr. Jones the mason is insane", what 
word modifies "Mr. Jones"? The noun "mason". In what 
manner does it modify "Mr. Jones"? It tells his trade or 
business. 

These modifying words are called Adjective Elements, because 
they modify nouns. 

1. An Adjective Element is a word or group of 
words which modifies a noun. 

In the sentence, "Eipe peaches are plentiful", what ele- 
ment is "ripe"? It is an adjective element. Why? Because 
it modifies the noun "peaches". 

In the sentence, "Milton the poet was blind", what element 
is "poet"? It is an adjective element. Why? 

In the sentence, "Solomon's temple was destroyed", what 
element is "Solomon's"? It is an adjective element. Why? 



44 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by descriptive ad- 
jectives. 
Model. — Cold weather is unpleasant. 

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by definitive ad- 
jectives. 
Model. — Both horses are lame. 

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by nouns. 

Models. — Eli's uncle is rich. Mr. Todd the mason is young. 

Write five sentences, modifying both subjects and objects by ad- 
jective elements. 
Model. — Ellen's mother bought a new bonnet. 

Point out all the adjective elements in your reading lesson. 

Analyze the following sentences, using these 

MODELS. 
I. " Sweet sounds soothe the ear." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

Sounds is the subject; (why?): soothe, the predicate; (why?). 
" Sounds" is modified by sweet, an adjective element; "soothe", 
by ear, an objective element: "ear," by the, an adjective element. 

II. " Frank's father is a merchant." 

This is sentence; (why?). 

Father is the subject; (why?): merchant, the predicate; 
(why?). "Father" is modified by Frank's, an adjective element: 
"merchant," by a, an adjective element. 

III. " Milton the poet was blind." 

This is a sentence; (why?). 

Milton is the subject ; (why?): blind, the predicate; (why?): 
was is the copula. "Milton" is modified by poet, an adjective 
element: "poet", by the, an adjective element. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 45 

EXERCISES. 

1. Clarence is a good scholar. 2. Charles found an old 
knife. 3. Helen's mother is sick. 4. Miss Young tlie mil- 
liner is dead. 

5. The thief stole father's horse. 6. The sheriff caught Hobbs 
the burglar. 7. Five boys earned three dollars. 8. Both ves- 
sels have sailed. 

9. Several scholars were tardy. 10. Few men escaped. 11. 
Many men died. 12. Mr. Snooks the grocer boards Mr. Sears 
the tailor. 



Questions. — What is an adjective element ? Can nouns be used 
as adjective elements? 

What is a participle ? How many participles are there ? What 
is the present participle ? The perfect participle ? The compound 
participle ? 

How does the present participle end ? The perfect participle ? 
How is the compound participle formed ? Why is this part of 
speech called a participle? 



24. The Pronoun. 

"John put John's hat on John's head." 

Is this a correct sentence? It is not. What word is un- 
necessarily repeated? "John's." How should the sentence be 
written? It should be written,- "John put his hat on his 
head". 

What word is here used instead of "John's"? "His." 

This word is called a Pronoun, which means instead of a 
noun. 

1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; 
as, he runs, she sings, they listen. 

In the sentences, "I write", "You read", "They study", 
what are the words "/", "you", and "they"? They are pro- 
nouns. Why? Because they are used instead of nouns— "I", 



46 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

instead of the name of the person speaking; "you", instead 
of the name of the person spoken to; "they", instead of the 
names of the persons spoken of. 

The name of a person speaking is said to be of the first 
person; the name of an object spoken to, of the second person; 
the name of an object spoken of, of the third person. 

Those pronouns which show by their form whether the 
nouns which they represent are of the first, second, or third 
person, are called Personal Pronouns. 

2. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and 
show by their form whether they are of the first, sec- 
ond, or third person. 

Rem. — The personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, we, 
our, us, my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, 
its, they, their, them, myself, himself, &c. 

Point out all the personal pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I like her. 
5. They are honest. 6. Her lesson was learned. 7. I borrowed 
his books. 8. They have sold their farms. 9. You should 
study your lesson. 10. Ye are the people. 11. It can not find 
its master. 12. Thy fame hath preceded thee. 

Analyze the foregoing sentences, and point out the nouns and 
verbs, using these 

MODELS. 

I. "It is he." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

It is the subject; (why?): he is the predicate; (why?): is is 
the copula. 

II. "He has lost his book." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 
He is the subject; (why?): has lost, the predicate; (why?). 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 47 

"Has lost" is modified by book, an objective element; and 
"book" by his, an adjective element. 

III. "Their horses drowned themselves." ' 

This is a sentence; (why?). 

Horses is the subject; (why?): drowned, the predicate; 
(why?). "Horses" is modified by their, an adjective element, 
and "drowned", by themselves, an objective element. 

Substitute appropriate pronouns for the dashes in the following 

sentences : 

1. Stephen died a martyr to faith. 2. house to 

was a strange land. 3. said of — — son, " 



is brother". 4. Let there be no strife betwixt 

and . 5. Lend pen till write exercise. 

6. How much missed brother and sister. 7. 

say are friend. 

Write five sentences, using personal pronouns as subjects. 
Model. — We are scholars. 

Write five sentences, using personal pronouns as objects. 
Model. — Henry admires them. 

Write five sentences, using personal pronouns as adjective 
elements. 
Model. — His book is in his hand. 

Point out the personal pronouns in your reading lesson, using 
this 

MODEL. 
"His book is in my desk." 
His is a pronoun; it is a word used instead of a noun : per- 
sonal; it represents a noun, and shows that it is of the third 
person. 

My is a pronoun; (why?): personal; it represents a noun, and 
shows that it is of the first person. 



48 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun? Name 
some of the personal pronouns. 

What is an adjective element ? What is an adjective ? A de- 
scriptive adjective? A definitive adjective? 

What is a participle ? The present participle ? How does it 
end ? The perfect participle ? How does it end ? The compound 
participle ? How is it formed ? 

What is the definite article? The indefinite article? 

What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
copulative verb ? 

What is an element? The subject? The predicate? The cop- 
ula ? For what is the copula used ? What is analysis ? 

What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? Can 
you write objects ? Can you write the names of objects ? What is 
an object? What is a word? 

25. Possessive Pronouns. 

In the sentence, "This house is ours", what is the subject? 
"House." Why? What is the predicate? "Ours." Why? 
It is that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the cop- 
ula? "Is." 

What modifies "house"? "This", an adjective element. 
What words can be used instead of "ours"? "Our house." 
What does the pronoun "our" denote? It denotes that we 
own the house. 

"Ours", then, is used to denote both the possessor and the 
thing possessed. In this sentence, it represents both "our" 
and "house". Because it does this, it is called a Possessive 
Pronoun. 

Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent 

both the possessor and the thing possessed. 

The Possessive Pronouns are w«, thine, his, hers, ours, 
yours, theirs, our own, &c. 

In the sentence, "That book is his", what is the predicate? 
"His." Why? What does it represent? It represents the 
words "his book". What is it? It is a possessive pronoun. 
Why? Because it represents both the possessor and the thing 
possessed. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 49 

In the sentence, "That is his book" what is the predicate? 
"Book." What modifies "book"? "His", an adjective ele- 
ment. What is "his"? It is a personal pronoun. Why is it 
not a possessive pronoun? Because it modifies the noun fol- 
lowing it, and does not represent both the possessor and the 
thing possessed. 

Write five sentences, using possessive pronouns as subjects. 
Model. — His is a hard lot. 

Write five sentences, using possessive pronouns as predicates. 
Model. — That desk is mine. 

Analyze the following sentences, using these 

MODELS. 
I. " Ours is an easy task." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

Ours is the subject; (why?): task, the predicate; (why?): is 
is the copula. "Task" is modified by an and easy, both adjec- 
tive elements. 

II. "That factory is theirs." 

This is a sentence; (why?). 

Factory is the subject; (why?), tbeirs, the predicate; (why?): 
is is the copula. "Factory" is modified by that, an adjective 
element. 

III. " This land is our own." 
This is a sentence; (why?)* 

Land is the subject; (why?): otii* own, the predicate; (why?). 
"Land" is modified by this, an adjective element. 

EXERCISES. 

1. This book is hers. 2. Those apples are his. 3. Yours is 
a hard lesson. 4. Those marbles are mine. 5. This book is 
thine. 6; The evenings are our own. 7. The victory is ours. 
E. G.— 4. 



50 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Point out the possessive pronouns in these sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
"That book is mine." 

Mine is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; it represents both the 
possessor and the thing possessed: it is equivalent to "my book". 

See whether there are any possessive pronouns in your read- 
ing lesson. 

Questions. — What are possessive pronouns? Name some of 
them. What is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? What is a par- 
ticiple? The present participle? The perfect participle? The 
compound participle? What is an adjective? A descriptive ad- 
jective? A definitive adjective? 

What is the definite article? The indefinite article? When 
should a and when should an be used ? What is a verb ? A tran- 
sitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb? 

What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 

What is an element? The subject? The predicate ? The ob- 
jective element? The adjective element? What is analysis? 



26. Relative Pronouns. 

When we say, "A rich man owns that house", what ele- 
ment is the word "rich"? It is an adjective element. Why? 

When we say, "A man who is rich owns that house", what 
words do we use instead of "rich" to modify "man"? We 
use the words, "who is rich". What element do these words 
form? An adjective element. Why? Because they modify a 
noun. 

Is the expression, "who is rich*', a proposition? It is. 
Why? Because it has a subject and a predicate. What is the 
subject? "Who." Why? What is the predicate? "Eich." 
Why? What is the copula? 

What part of speech is "who"? It is a pronoun. Why? 
It is a word used instead of a noun. Instead of what noun is 
it used? The noun "man". 

This sentence, then, contains two propositions: "A man 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 51 

owns that house ", and "who is rich"; the second proposition 
modifying the- subject of the first. Such a sentence is called 
a Complex Sentence. 

1. A Complex Sentence consists of a proposition 
some part of which is modified by another proposition. 

The propositions of which a complex sentence is composed 
are called clauses. 

What is the proposition, "A man owns that house"? It is 
a clause. Why? It is a proposition which forms a part of a 
complex sentence. What is the proposition, "who is rich"? 
It is a clause. Why? 

The pronoun "who" is not only the subject of the proposi- 
tion, but it also joins the modifying clause, "who is rich", to 
the noun which it limits. 

Those pronouns which represent preceding words or expres- 
sions, to which they join modifying clauses, are called Relative 
Pronouns. 

2. A Relative Pronoun is a word used to repre- 
sent a preceding word or expression, to which it joins 
a modifying clause. 

3. A Relative Clause is a clause introduced by a 
relative pronoun. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that. As is 
also a relative after the words such, many, and same. 

The suffixes ever, so, and soever are sometimes added to these 
pronouns; as, whoever, ivhoso, ivhosoever. 

Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences, 
using this 

MODEL. 

"A man who is industrious will prosper." 

Who is a pronoun; (why?): relative; it represents a preceding 



52 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

word, to which it joins a modifying clause. The word it repre- 
sents is "man". 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell me whom you saw. 2. Those who sow will reap. 3. 
He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 4. This is the house 
which my father bought. 

5. I gave him all that I had. 6. Judge ye what I say. 7. 
He will do what is right. 8. A kind boy avoids doing what- 
ever injures others. 9. Whoever studies, will learn. 10. What- 
ever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do. 

Point out the relative pronouns in your reading lesson. 

Point out the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and personal pro- 
nouns in the above sentences. 

Substitute pronouns for the dashes in the following sentences : 

1. Death lifts the vail hides a brighter sphere. 2. Blest 

are the feasts simple plenty crowns. 3. God, 

in — trust. 

4. The man paid the money was the cashier. 

5. The message sent was received. 6. No one can 

tell others may do. 7. will do is proper. 

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by relative clauses. 
Model. — The boy who studies will learn. 

Write five sentences, modifying their objects by relative clauses. 
Model. — I have lost the book which you gave me. 

Analyze the foregoing sentences, using these 

MODELS. 
I. " The fish which you caught, is a trout." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 
Fish is the subject; (why?): trout, the predicate; (why?): 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 53 

is is the copula. "Fish" is modified by the and which you 
caught, both adjective elements. 

II. "I remember what you said." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

I is the subject; (why?): remember, the predicate; (why?). 
"Remember" is modified by what you said, an objective element. 



Questions. — What is a clause ? What is a relative pronoun ? 
What is a relative clause? Name the relative pronouns. What 
terminations are sometimes added to these pronouns ? 

What are possessive pronouns? 

What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? 

What is a participle ? The present participle ? The perfect 
participle ? The compound participle ? What is the ending of the 
present participle? Of the perfect participle? How is the com- 
pound participle formed? 

What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A definitive 
adjective? What is the definite article? The indefinite article? 
What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
copulative verb ? 

What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 



27. Interrogative Pronouns. 

In the sentences: "Who is that man?" "Which comes 
first?" "What is he?", what words are used instead of the 
answers to the questions? The words "who", "which", and 
"what". 

These words, together with whose and whom, when used in 
asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns, 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one used in asking 

questions. 

The interrogative pronouns which and what are sometimes 
placed before nouns. They are then called Interrogative Ad- 
jectives. 

Ex. — "Which road shall I take?" The word "which" is an 
interrogative adjective, modifying "road". "What noise is 



54 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

that?" The word "what" is an interrogative adjective, modify- 
ing " noise". 

Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following, sen- 
tences, using this 

MODEL. 
"Who visited your school yesterday?" 

Who is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; it is used in asking 
a question. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What did he say? 2. Who wrote that letter? 3. Which 
trots the fastest? 4. Whom did you call? 5. Whose house 
was burned? 6. What can he mean? 7. Who has learned 
this lesson ? 8. Who discovered America ? 9. Who borrowed 
John's slate? 10. Whose book is this? 

Point out the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and personal pro- 
nouns in these sentences. 

See whether there are any interrogative pronouns or inter- 
rogative adjectives in your reading lesson. 

Analyze the foregoing sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
"Whom can you trust?" 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

You is the subject; (why?): can trust, the predicate; (why?). 
"Can trust" is modified by whom, an objective element. 



Questions. — What is an interrogative pronoun? What words 
are used as interrogative pronouns? Which of these are some- 
times used as interrogative adjectives? 

What is a clause? A relative pronoun? A relative clause? 
Name the relative pronouns. 

What are possessive pronouns? Name some of them. 

What is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? Name some of 
them. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 55 



28. The Adverb. 

. In the sentence, "Birds sing sweetly", does the word 
"sweetly" denote ivhat the birds sing? It does not: it tells 
how they sing. Does it complete the meaning of the verb 
"sing", like an objective element? It does not: it modifies 
it in another way. 

In the sentence, "Very large vessels were seen", what is 
modified by "very"? The word "large". What is "large"? 
It is an adjective. 

In the sentence, "He rode quite fast", what word tells how 
he rode? The word "fast". What word tells how fast he 
rode? The word " quite ". 

Words used in this manner are called Adverbs. 

1. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
adjective, participle, or adverb. 

A group of words used like an adverb is called an Adverbial 
Element 

2. An Adverbial Element is a word or group of 
words used to modify a verb, adjective, participle, or 
adverb. 

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
"The wind blew furiously." 
Furiously is an adverb; it is used to modify a verb. 

EXERCISES. 

1. That vessel sails slowly. 2. He built a house there. 3. 
Emma is quite unwell. 4. Those mountains are very high. 
5. We were agreeably surprised. 6. I will shortly return. 7. 
You will never see him again. 8. I would gladly pardon you. 
9. So thought Palmyra. 10. He afterward escaped. 



56 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Point out the nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adjectives in 

sentences. 

Point out the adverbs in your reading lesson. 

Write seven sentences, modifying their predicates by adverbs. 
Model. — We should walk quietly. 

Write seven sentences, modifying their subjects by adjectives, and 
those adjectives by adverbs. 
Model. — Very loud reports were heard. 

Write seven sentences, modifying their predicates by adverbs, and 
those adverbs by other adverbs. 
Model. — He walks quite slowly. 

Analyze the above exercises, using these 

MODELS. 
I. "Our house is very small." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

House is the subject ; (why?): small, the predicate ; (why?): 
is is the copula. "House" is modified by our, an adjective ele- 
ment: "small", by very, an adverbial element. 

II. "We should study our lessons carefully." 

This is a sentence; (why?). 

We is the subject; (why?): should study, the predicate; 
(why?). "Should study" is modified by lessons, an objective 
element, and by carefully, an adverbial element: "lessons" is 
modified by our, an adjective element. 



Questions. — What is an adverb? What do adverbs usually 
denote? What is an adverbial element? 

What is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? A possessive pro- 
noun? A clause? A relative pronoun? A relative clause? An 
interrogative pronoun? What are which and what called when 
placed before nouns? 

Give the directions for writing sentences. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



57 



29. The Preposition. 

In the sentence, "A man of wealth rode by our house ", 
what does the group of words "of wealth" modify? It modi- 
fies the noun "man". What element is it? It is an adjective 
element. Why? Because it modifies a noun. 

What does the group of words "by our house" modify? It 
modifies the verb "rode": it tells where he rode. What ele- 
ment is it? It is an adverbial element. Why? Because it- 
modifies a verb. 

The word "of" connects the noun "wealth" to the noun 
"man". The word "by" connects the noun "house" with the 
verb "rode". 

They are said to show the relations between the words 
which they connect. 

They are called Prepositions, and the nouns which follow 
them are called their objects. 

1. A Preposition is a word used to show the rela- 
tion between its object and some other word. 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



A = at, on, or in, 


At, 


Ere, 


Since, 


Aboard, 


Athwart, 


Except, 


Till, until, 


About, 


Before, 


For, 


Through, 


Above, 


Behind, 


From, 


Throughout, 


According to, 


Beside, 


In, 


To, 


Across, 


Besides, 


Into, 


Toward, 


After, 


Beneath, 


Of, 


Towards, 


Against, 


Between, 


Off, 


Under, 


Along, 


Betwixt, 


On, 


Unto, 


Amid, 


Beyond, 


Out of, 


Up, 


Among, 


But, 


Over, 


Upon, 


Amongst, 


By, 


Past, 


With, 


Around, 


Down, 


Bound, 


Within, 


As to, 


During, 


Save, 


Without. 



58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

When two prepositions come together they form a com- 
plex preposition. 

2. A Preposition and its object form a Phrase. 

Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
" He came from France to America." 
From is a preposition ; it shows the relation between its object 
and some other word. It shows the relation between " France" 
and "came". 

To is. a preposition; (why?): it shows the relation between 
"America" and "came". 

EXERCISES. 

1. The old man was often in want of the necessaries of life. 
2. The boy went through the gate into the garden. 3. Be not 
forward in the presence of your superiors. 4. He was not, at 
. that time, in the city. 5. He drove over the bridge into the 
city. 6. He went to the doctor for advice. 7. The path 
brought them to the end of the wood. 8. She turned to the 
old man with a lovely smile upon her face. 9. The light 
came through the stained windows of the old church. 

Point out the nouns, verbs, adjectives, and pronouns in these 
sentences. 

Point out the prepositions in your reading lesson. 
Analyze the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
"Habits of industry will lead to prosperity." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

Habits is the subject; (why?): will lead, the predicate; 
(why?). "Habits" is modified by the phrase of industry, an 
adjective element: "will lead" is modified by the phrase to 
prosperity, an adverbial element. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 59 

EXERCISES. 

1. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the 
ship. 3. I differ from you on that point. 4. The two thieves 
divided the money between them. 5. The ship was driven 
upon the rocks. 

6. Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The 
young lambs are bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to 
the country of the free. 9. I will divide this farm among my 
three sons. 10. Man goeth to his long home. 11. The sleep 
of a laboring man is sweet. 



Questions. — What is a preposition ? What is the object of a 
preposition ? What is a phrase ? 

What is an adverb ? What do adverbs usually denote ? What 
is an adverbial element ? 

What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? A possessive pro- 
noun ? A relative pronoun ? An interrogative pronoun ? A 
clause? A relative clause? 

What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
copulative verb ? 

What is a participle ? The present participle ? The perfect 
participle ? The compound participle ? 

What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A definitive 
adjective ? 

What is' a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? Which 
of these should always commence with a capital letter? 



30. The Conjunction. 

In the sentence, "Ellen and Mary study botany", what two 
words are used as the subject? "Ellen" and "Mary". Why? 
Because something is affirmed of them : both Ellen and Mary 
study botany. What word joins them? The word "and". 

In the sentence, "Ellen or Mary studies botany", what two 
words are used as the subject? "Ellen" and "Mary". Are 
both represented as studying botany? They are not: if Ellen 
studies botany, Mary does not. What word joins them? The 
word "or". 



60 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

In the statement, " Ellen will study botany if Mary studies 
algebra", how many sentences are there? There are two: 
"Ellen will study botany", and "Mary studies algebra". 
What word is used to connect these two sentences? The 
word "if". 

The words "and", "or", "if", and all other words used 
merely to join words, phrases, clauses, and members are called 
Conjunctions, 

1. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, and members. 

Conjunctions merely connect words, they do not express 
relations, like prepositions. 

Two or more parts of the same proposition, connected by 
conjunctions, form a compound element. 

2. A Compound Element consists of two or more 
parts of the same proposition connected by con- 
junctions. 

Ex. — "James and Samuel are kind, honest, and faithful." 
"James" and "Samuel" are the parts of the compound subject: 
"kind", " honest", and "faithful" are the parts of the compound 
predicate. 

The comma [,] is omitted after "James" because two 
parts only are connected; it is inserted after "kind" and 
"honest", because more than two parts of a compound ele- 
ment are connected. 

Directions for Writing*. — When a compound element con- 
sists of more than two parts, 

1st. Place a comma after each part except the last. 

2d. Use the conjunction between the last two parts only. 

Point out the conjunctions in your reading lesson. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 61 

Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
"Eli and Silas will improve, if they study." 
And is a conjunction; it is a word used to connect words: it 
connects "Eli" and "Silas". 

If is a conjunction; (why?) : it connects the sentences, "Eli and 
Silas will improve" and "they study". 

EXERCISES. 

1. We moved along silently and cautiously. 2. I consent 
to the constitution, because I expect no better. 3. He heaped 
up great riches, but passed his time miserably. 4. He is both 
learned and wise. 5. I shall -not go, if it rain. 

6. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 7. They submit, 
since they can not conquer. 8. He has many faults, still he 
is very popular. 9. Emma or Susan will remain at home. 
10. Neither Clara nor Jane were in the room. 

Point out all the parts of speech in these sentences. 

Analyze the above sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
" He came and went like a pleasant thought." 
This is a sentence; (why?). 

He is the subject; (why?): came and went, the compound 
predicate ; it is that which is affirmed of the subject. The com- 
pound predicate is modified by the phrase, like a pleasant 
thought, an adverbial element: "thought" is modified by a and 
pleasant, adjective elements. 



Questions. — What is a conjunction? What is the difference 
between a conjunction and a preposition? What is a compound 
element ? Give the directions for writing a compound element. 

What is a preposition? What is the object of a preposition? 
What is a phrase? 

What is an adverb ? What is an adverbial element ? 



62 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

31. The Interjection. 

"Hurra! we have found him." 

Is this a sentence? It is. What is the subject? The pro- 
noun "we". What is the predicate? "Have found." What 
modifies the predicate? The pronoun "him", an objective 
element. 

What does the word "hurra" denote? It denotes that the 
speaker or writer is highly pleased. Does it affirm or deny 
any thing? It does not: it simply implies a feeling or emo- 
tion of pleasure. 

There are words, also, used to denote sorrow, grief, surprise, 
disgust, pity, hatred, &c. 

All such words are called Interjections. 

An Interjection is a word used to denote some 
sudden or strong emotion. 

Interjections usually, but not always, require an exclama- 
tion point [ ! ] after them. 

Point out the interjections in each of the following sentences, 
using this 

MODEL. 
"Hush! they are coming." 
Hush is an interjection ; it denotes some sudden emotion. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Ha! it freezes me. 2. Aha! you are a truant, I see. 
3. Ahem! I will think about it. 4 Hark! the clock strikes 
one. 5. Pshaw ! I knew that long ago. 6. Alas ! we shall 
see him no more. 

7. Tush! tush! man, I made no reference to you. 8. Ay, 
every inch a king. 9. O, what a noble mind is here o'er- 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 63 

thrown! 10. Alas! they had been friends in youth. 11. 
Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 12. Alas! for 
the rarity of Christian charity. 

Point out all the parts of speech in the above sentences. 

Point out the interjections in your reading lesson. 



Questions. — What is an interjection? What should usually 
be placed after an interjection? 

What is a conjunction? What is a compound element? Give 
the directions for writing a compound element. 

What is a preposition? W^hat is the object of a preposition? 
What is a phrase? 

What is an adverb ? An adverbial element ? 



32. Classes of Sentences. 

Sentences may be used to declare something, to ask questions, 
to express commands, or to denote emotion. 

1. There are four classes of sentences : Declarative, 
Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclojnatory. 

2. A declarative Sentence is one used to affirm 
or deny something ; as, Fishes sivim. Fishes do not 
walk. 

3. An Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask 
a question ; as, Are you sick ? Where do you live ? 

4. An Imperative Sentence is one used to express 
a command or an entreaty; as, Come here. Do not 
strike me. 

5: An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in ex- 
clamations, or in the expression of strong emotion ; 
as, Oh, how glad I am to see you I 



64 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Tell the different hinds of sentences in your reading lesson, using 
these 

MODELS. 

I. " Attend to the duties I have assigned you." 
This is a sentence; (why?): imperative; it is used to express a 
command. 

II. "When was America discovered?" 

This is a sentence; (why?): interrogative; it is used to ask a 
question. 

Questions. —How many classes of sentences are there ? Name 
them. What is a declarative sentence? An interrogative sen- 
tence ? An imperative sentence ? An exclamatory sentence ? 

33. Eeyiew. 

1. We have now learned that there are nine Parts 
of Speech; viz., Nowi, Verb, Adjective,, Participle, 
Pronoun, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Inter- 
jection, 

2. We have also learned that a sentence may con- 
tain five Elements. 

3. The Principal Elements are the Subject and 
the Predicate. 

4. The Subordinate Elements are the Objective, 
Adjective, and Adverbial Elements. 

Before proceeding farther, be sure that you can answer all 
the following 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

How many senses have we ? 
Name them. How do we ob- 
tain a knowledge of material 



things ? Can we perceive things 
which are not material? What 
is an object? What is a word? 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



65 



What is language? Spoken 
language ? Written language ? 
Grammar ? English grammar? 

What are parts of speech? | 
How many parts of speech are 
there ? Name them. How do 
you determine the class to which 
any word belongs ? 

What is a noun ? A common 
noun? A proper noun? Give 
examples of each class. Which 
should commence with capital 
letters? Can you write objects? 
Can you write the names of ob- 
jects ? 

What is a sentence? A prop- 
osition? How many classes of 
sentences are there? Naniethem. 
What is a declarative sentence ? 
An interrogative sentence ? An 
imperative sentence? An ex- 
clamatory sentence? Give the i 
directions for writing sentences. 

What is the subject of a prop- 
osition ? The predicate ? The 
copula? What does the word 
copula mean? 

What are quality-words ? Can 
they be used as predicates ? Give j 
an example. Give an example 
of a noun used as a predicate. 
What do predicate-nouns de- 
note? 

What is an element? What 
are the principal elements? Is 
the copula an element ? What 
is its use? What are the sub- 
ordinate elements ? What is 
analysis ? 

E. G.— 5. 



What is a verb ? What does 
it usually express ? What is a 
transitive verb ? An intransi- 
tive verb ? A copulative verb ? 
Is the object of a transitive verb 
always expressed? What is an 
objective element? 

What is an adjective? A de- 
scriptive adjective? A defini- 
tive adjective ? What adjectives 
should always commence with 
capitals ? 

What words are called ar- 
ticles ? What is the definite ar- 
ticle? The indefinite article? 
When is a used? When is an 
used? 

What is a participle? Will- 
is it called a participle? How 
many participles are there ? 
Name them. When is a par- 
ticiple called active f When pas- 
sive f What does the present par- 
ticiple denote? How does the 
present active participle end? 
What does the perfect participle 
denote? How does it usually 
end ? What does the compound 
participle denote ? What is the 
" principal verb" ? How is the 
compound participle formed ? 

What is an adjective element ? 
Can nouns be used as adjective 
elements? Give examples. 

What is a pronoun ? A per- 
sonal pronoun? Name some of 
the personal pronouns. 

What are possessive pronouns? 
Name some of them. 



66 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



What is a clause ? A relative 
pronoun ? A relative clause ? 
Name the relative pronouns. 
What terminations are some- 
times annexed to these pro- 
nouns ? 

What is an interrogative pro- 
noun ? Name them. Which of 
these are sometimes interroga- 
tive adjectives? 

What is an adverb ? What do 
adverbs usually denote ? What 
is an adverbial element? 



What is a preposition ? What 
is the object of a preposition? 
What is a phrase ? 

What is a conjunction? What 
is the difference between a con- 
junction and a preposition ? 
What is a compound element? 
Give the directions for writing 
a compound element. 

What is an interjection? What 
mark of punctuation should usu- 
ally be placed after an inter- 
jection? 



NOUNS. 67 



PART III. 
SYNTAX-PARSING. 

THE NOUN. 

To nouns belong Gender, Person, dumber, and 
Case. 

34. Gender. 

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns 
with regard to sex. 

2. There are four genders : Masculine, Feminine, 
Common, and Neuter. 

3. The Masculine Gender denotes males, as, fa- 
ther, king, governor. 

4. The Feminine Gender denotes females; as, 
mother, queen, governess. 

5. The Common Gender denotes either males or 

females ; as, children, parent, cattle. 

6. The Neuter Gender denotes neither males nor 
females ; as, stove, pen, locomotive. 



68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

7. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine 
and feminine genders: 

1. By using different words; as, father, mother; brother, 
sister ; boy, girl ; gentleman, lady ; Mr., Mrs. ; Charles, Caro- 
line; drake, duck; hart, roe. 

2. By different terminations; as, actor, actress; executor, 
executrix; hero, heroine. 

3. By joining some distinguishing word; as, man-servant, 
maid-servant; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; mer- 
man, mermaid. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell the gender of the following nouns: 

Baker, milliner, poet, father, aunt, nephew, cart, Susan, 
Joseph, duke, countess, administratrix, madam, president, 
empress. 

Give the corresponding masculine or feminine for the follow- 
ing nouns: 

Grandfather, uncle, niece, count, widow, prophet, sorcerer, 
earl, female, hen-sparrow, Miss Jones, Augusta, Francis, 
mediator. 

Write five sentences, using masculine nouns as subjects. 
Model.— John left his book on my desk. 

Write five sentences, using feminine nouns as objects. 
Model. — The teacher sent my sister home at recess. 

Write six sentences, using nouns in the common or neuter gender 
as subjects or objects. 

Model. — A beggar frightened me this morning. 
Tell the gender of all the nouns in your reading lesson. 



NOUNS. 69 

Questions. — What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper 
noun? What belong to nouns? What is gender? How many 
genders are there ? What is the masculine gender ? The feminine 
gender ? The common gender ? The neuter gender ? How many 
ways are there of distinguishing the masculine and feminine gen- 
ders? Give them. 



35. Person. 

1. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, 
and the person or object spoken of. 

2. There are three persons : First, Second, and 
Third. 

3. The First Person denotes the speaker; as, "I, 
Geo. IV"; "We are contented with our lot". 

4. The Second Person denotes the person ad- 
dressed; as, "James, shut the door"; "You are care- 
less". 

5. The Third Person denotes the object spoken 
of; as, "My father sold his farm this morning." 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in the following 

sentences : 

1. My lesson is learned. 2. Have you seen our old friend 
lately? 3. Ellen, tell your sister to come home. 4. I saw him 
on the battle eve. 5. They left the plowshare in the mold. 
6. Your horse is in our barn, Mr. Eckel. 7. He left home 
early in the morning. 

Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in your reading lesson. 



70 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the first person 

as subjects, predicates, or objects. 

Model. — We are pupils. / defended myself. 

Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the second 
person as subjects or objects. 

Model. — You may be excused. I envy thee. 

Write five sentences, using nouns or- pronouns of the third person 

as subjects, predicates, or objects. 

Models. — Studious pupils learn long lessons easily. They left 
their homes in sorrow. 



Questions. — What is person ? How many persons are there ? 
Define them. What is gender ? The masculine gender? The fem- 
inine gender? The common gender? The neuter gender? What 
belong to nouns? 



36. Number, 

Nouns may denote one object or more than one. Thus, 
"house" denotes one object; "houses", more than one: "ox" 
denotes one object; "oxen", more than one. 

This modification or use of a noun is called Number. 

1. Number is that property of a noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes one from more than one. 

2. There are two numbers : Singular and Plural. 

3. The Singular Number denotes but one ; as, 
boy, girl, apple. 

4. The Plural Number denotes more than one ; 
as, boys, girls, apples. 



NOUNS. 71 

37. Formation of the Plural. 

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s, form their 
plurals by adding s only to the singular; as, book, books; boy, 
boys; desk, desks. 

2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s, form their 
plurals by adding es to the singular; as, bush, bushes; box, 
boxes. 

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
into ies; as, mercy, mercies. 

4. Some nouns ending in / or fe, change these endings 
into ves; as, knife, knives. 

5. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add 
es; as, cargo, cargoes. 

6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s; as, 
folio,, folios. 

7. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add 's; as, p's and q's; 
9's and IV s; the *'s; the %'s and 9's. 

8. Proper nouns usually add s only in forming their plu- 
rals; as, Mary, Marys; Sarah, Sarahs; Nero, Neros. The forms 
Maries, Neroes, &c, are sometimes used. 

9. Most nouns from foreign languages change us to i; 
um and on to a; is to es or ides; a to ce or ata; and x to ces 
or ices; as, calculus, calculi; arcanum, arcana; phenomenon, 
phenomena; thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides. 

10. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, 
men; ox, oxen; mouse, mice. 

11. A few nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, deer, 
trout, yoke, hose, vermin, and others. 

12. In compound words, the part described by the rest is 
generally pluralized; as, bj^others-m-lsiw, courts-mavtisil, ox- 
carts. 



72 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

13. Nouns ending in ful or full, form their plurals by add- 
ing s to the singular; as, handfuls, mouthfuls. 

EXERCISES. 
Write the plurals of the following nouns: 

Plow, rake, wrench, hoe, calf, turf, tooth, chimney, clam, 
cameo, vase, glory, folly, embargo, woman, child, armful, tariff, 
tax, studio, mischief, a, b, c, ft, f, incubus, radix, John, 
Charles, creature, reply, salmon, horse, wagon-load, momen- 
tum, tooth, analysis. 

Write the singular of the following nouns: 

Horses, oxen, men, children, pence, badges, loaves, feet, 
mice, genii, beauties, geese, judges, heroes, ellipses, strata, 
rubies, errata, valleys, folios. 

Tell the number of all the nouns in your reading lesson. 



Questions. — What is number ? Plow many numbers are there ? 
What is the singular number? The plural number? Repeat the 
rules for the formation of the plural. What is person ? The first 
person? The second person ? The third person ? What is gender? 
The masculine gender ? The feminine gender ? The common gen- 
der? The neuter gender? 



38. Case. 

"The sun is shining": here "sun" is used as the subject 
of a proposition. "Every star is a sun": here "sun" is used 
as the predicate. "The sun's rays are warm": here "sun" is 
used as an adjective element, modifying "rays". "We saw 
the sun at noon" : here "sun" is used as an objective element, 
modifying "saw". "Dear is thy light, O sun!" here "sun" 
is used absolutely — i. e., it is absolved or separated from any 
grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. 



NOUNS. 73 

In no two of these sentences has the word " sun " the same 
relation to the other words. 

These different relations are called Cases. 

1. Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to 
other words. 

2. There are four eases : Nominative, Possessive, Ob- 
jective, and Absolute. 

3. The ^fioniiiiative Case is the use of a noun or 
pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a proposi- 
tion ; as, Boys skate ; Horses are animals. 

4. The. Possessive Case is the use of a noun or 
pronoun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or 
kind; as, John's hat, Ray's Algebra, the sun's rays, 
men's clothing. 

The Possessive Case Singular is formed by annexing 's to 
the nominative; as, Ellen's, Charles's. 

A few singular nouns, ending with s or ce, form their pos- 
sessive case by adding the apostrophe only; as, goodness' sake, 
conscience' sake. 

The Possessive Case Plural is formed by annexing the apos- 
trophe only, when the nominative plural ends in s; as, boys', 
"The Teachers' Association". 

Plural nouns not ending with s, form their possessive case 
by annexing 9 s; as, men's hats. 

5. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pro- 
noun as the object of a transitive verb in the active 
voice, or of a preposition ; as, " Indians hunt buffa- 
loes"; "They ran over the bridge"; "John threw a 
stone at the dog". 



74 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

6. The Absolute Case is the use of a noun or pro- 
noun independent of any relation to other words; as, 
"Oh, my son"; "Soldiers, attention". 

Bern. — A noun may be in the absolute case: 

1. By direct address; as, "James, bring me a book". 

2. By exclamation; as, "Oh, my daughter/" 

3. By pleonasm; i. e., by placing it before a sentence in 
which an affirmation is made concerning it; as, "Y out fathers, 
where are they?" 

4. With a participle; as, "The sim being risen". 

7. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun 
denoting the same person or thing, is, by apposition, 
in the same case; as, Washington the general became 
Washington the statesman. 

39. Declension. 

The ^Declension of a noun is its variation to de- 
note number and case. 

The absolute case always has the same form as the nom- 
inative. 

EXAMPLE. 

Plural. 





Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Norn., 


Fly, 


Flies, 


Nom., 


Goodness, 


Poss., 


Fly's, 


Flies', 


Poss., 


Goodness' 


Ob}-, 


Fly, 


Flies. 


Obj, 


Goodness, 



Questions. — What is case? How many cases are there? 
What is the nominative case? The possessive case? The object- 
ive case ? The absolute case ? How is the possessive case singular 
formed ? The possessive case plural ? In how many ways may a 
noun be in the absolute case? Give examples. 

What is declension ? Decline "boy", "girl", "farmer". 



PARSING. 75 

40. Parsing. 

Parsing consists (1) In naming the part of speech ; 
(2) In telling its properties; (3) In pointing out its 
relations to other words ; (4) In giving the rule for 
its construction. 



41. Order of Parsing. 

1. A noun, and why? 

2. Common or proper, and why? 

3. Gender, and why? 

4. Person, and why? 

5. Number, and why? 

6. Case, and why? 

7. Eule for construction. 



42. Models for Parsing. 

I. "Wheat is a vegetable." 

Wheat ... is a noun; it is a name : common; it can be applied to 
any one of a kind or class : neuter gender; it denotes 
neither males nor females: third person; it is spoken 
of: singular number; it denotes but one: nominative 
case; it is used as the subject of the proposition. 
Eule I. "The subject of a proposition is in the nom- 
inative case." 

Vegetable is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): neuter gender; 
(why?): third person; (why?): singular number; 
(why?): nominative case; it is used as the predicate 
of the proposition. Rule II. "A noun or pronoun 
used as the predicate of a proposition is in the nom- 
inative case." 



76 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



II. " Henry's uncle, the sheriff, was wounded." 

Henry's . is a noun; (why?): proper; it is the name of a par- 
ticular person: masculine gender; it denotes a male: 
third person; (why?): singular number; (why?): pos- 
sessive case; it denotes possession, and modifies "uncle". 
Rule III. " A noun or pronoun used to limit the mean- 
ing of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is 
in the possessive case." 

Sheriff, is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): masculine gen- 
der; (why?): third person; (why?): singular number; 
(why?): nominative case, in apposition with " uncle", 
which it modifies. Rule IV. "A noun or pronoun 
used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun by 
denoting the same person, place, or thing, is in the 
same case." 



III. "Samuel, study your lesson with care." 

Samuel . . is a noun; (why?): proper; (why?): masculine gen- 
der; (why?): second person; it denotes the person 
addressed : singular number; it denotes but one : ab- 
solute case; it is used independently. Rule V. "A 
noun or pronoun used independently is in the abso- 
lute case." 

Lesson . . is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): neuter gender; 
(why?) : third person; (why ?) : singular number; (why?) : 
objective case; it is the object of the verb "study". 
Rule VI. "The object of a transitive verb in the 
active voice, or of its participles, is in the object- 
ive case." 

Care .... is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): neuter gender; 
(why?) : third person; (why?) : singular number; (why?) : 
objective case; it is used as the object of the preposition 
"with". Rule VII. "The object of a preposition is in 
the objective case." 



SYNTAX. 77 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns: 

1. Borneo is a large island. 2. Our father lives in Wash- 
ington. 3. John's dog bit Clarence. 4. Johnson's farm is 
mortgaged. 5. Mr. Trowel the mason is unwell. 6. Oh, Helen, 
father is coming. 7. The statue fell from its pedestal. 8. 
Gad, a troop shall overcome him. 9. Jocko has stolen my 
spectacles. 10. Susan's mother is my aunt. 11. Is the doc- 
tor's office open? 

12. Next to sincerity, remember still 
Thou must resolve upon integrity. 
God will have all thou hast ; thy mind, thy will, 
Thy thoughts, thy words, thy works. — Herbert. 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Winter 
Sports", and parse the nouns. 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. Jane has two brother-in-laws. 2. Storms are interesting 
phenomenons. 3. Three chimnies were on fire. 4. The Sha- 
ker's are industrious. 5. Did you attend Mr. Chance' lecture. 
6. I called at Coleman's the jeweler's. 7. She is reading in her 
sister's Mary's book. 

Questions. — What is a noun? A common noun? A proper 
noun ? What belong to nouns ? 

What is gender? How many genders are there? What is the 
masculine gender ? The feminine gender ? The common gender ? 
The neuter gender? 

What is person ? The first person ? The second person ? The 
third person? 

What is number? The singular number ? The plural number? 
Repeat the rules for the formation of the plural. 

What is case ? How many cases are there ? What is the nom- 
inative case ? The possessive case ? How is the possessive case 
singular formed ? The possessive case plural ? What is the ob- 
jective case ? The absolute case ? In how many ways may a 
noun or pronoun be in the absolute case ? Give examples. 

What is declension ? Parsing ? Order of parsing a noun ? 



78 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

THE PRONOUN. 

To pronouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and 
Case. 

43. Personal Pronouns. 

1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, 
he, she, and it, with their declined forms we, our, us, 
my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, 
its, they, their, them. 

2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed 
by adding self or selves to some form of the simple per- 
sonals ; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves. 

Rem. — You is used to represent both singular and plural 
nouns. 

We is used in place of /, in editorials, royal proclamations, 
&c. ; as, " We, Geo. IV, King of Great Britain and Ireland " ; 
" We were mistaken". 

It is sometimes used in the nominative, without reference 
to any particular antecedent, and in the objective for euphony 
alone; as, "It thunders"; "Come and trip it on the green". 

When pronouns of different persons are used, the second 
should precede the third, and the third the first 

44. Declension of Personal Pronouns. 

FIRST PERSON. 



Singular, Plural. 

Norn., I, We, 

Poss., My, mine, Our, 

Obj., Me, Us. 



Singular. Plural. 

Nom., Myself, Ourselves, 

Poss., , , 

Obj., Myself, Ourselves. 



PRONOUNS. 



79 



Nom., 
Poss., 
Obj., 



SECOND PERSON. 



Singular. Plural. 

Thou, Ye, 

Thy, thine, Your, 

Thee, You. 



Singular. 



Nom, 



. & Obj., | 



Thyself, 
Yourself. 



I Nom., 
Poss., 
Obj., 



Singular. Plural. 

You, You, 

Your, Your, 

You, You. 



Plural. 
Nom. & Obj., Yourselves. 



THIRD PERSON. 



Singular. 

Mas. Fern. Neut. 

Nom., He, She, It, 

Poss., His, Her, Its, 

Obj., Him, Her, It. 

Singular. 

Mas. 
Himself, 



Nom. & Obj., 



Fern. 
Herself, 

Neut. 
Itself. 



Plural. 

Com. or Neut. 
Nom. They, 

Poss., Their, 

Obj., Them. 



Plural 



Nom, 



. <fc Obj., J 



Com. or Neut. 
Themselves. 



45. Order of Parsing. 

1. A pronoun, and why? 

2. Personal, and why ? 

3. What is its antecedent? 

4. Gender, person, and number? Eule. 

5. Decline it. 

6. Case, and why? Eule. 



80 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

46, Models for Parsing. 

I. "I see them on their winding way." 

I is a 'pronoun; (why?) : personal; it shows by its form that 

it is of the first person : its antecedent is the name, un- 
derstood, of the speaker : gender, first person, singular 

number, to agree with its antecedent. Rule IX. " Pro- 
nouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, person, 
and number." Decline it : nominative case : Rule I. 

Them . is a pronoun, (why?): personal; (why?): its antecedent 

is the name, understood, of the person spoken of: 

gender, third person, plural number: Rule IX. Decline it: 
objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb "see": 
Rule VI. 

II. " I, myself, told you so." 

Myself is a pronoun; (why?): personal; (why?): compound: its 

antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker: 

gender, first person, singular number : Rule IX. Decline it: 
nominative case, in apposition with "I": Rule IV. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns and per- 
sonal pronouns : 

1. You and he are my friends. 2. I saw them in their car- 
riage. 3. The soldiers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the 
man. 5. He saved thy money for thee. 6. Your father knows 
us. 7. He himself hid your slate. 

8. Where shall I see him ? angels tell me where. 
You know him; he is near you; point him out. 
Shall I see glories beaming from his brow, 
Or trace his footsteps by the rising flowers? — Young. 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Our Garden", 
and parse the personal pronouns. 



PRONOUNS. 81 

Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? What 
are the simple personal pronouns? The compound personal pro- 
nouns? What does " you" represent? How is " we" used? How 
is "it" sometimes used? Give examples of the use of these pro- 
nouns. When pronouns of different persons are used, how should 
they be arranged ? 

Decline the personal pronouns. 

Repeat the order of parsing personal pronouns. 



47. Possessive Pronouns. 

1. The Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, his, 
hers, ours, yours, theirs. 

2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used 
for mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our own 
for ours, your own for yours, their own for theirs. 

48. Order of Parsing. 

1. A Pronoun, and why? 

2. Possessive, and why? 

3. What is its antecedent? 

4. Gender, person, and number? Kule. 

5. Case, and why? Kule. 

49. Models for Parsing. 

I. "That house. is mine, not yours." 

FIRST METHOD. 

Mine is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; it represents both the pos- 
sessor and the thing possessed : its antecedent is " house " : 
neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with 
its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the 
predicate of the proposition: Eule II. Parse "yours" in a 
similar manner. 
E. a.— 6. 



82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

SECOND METHOD. 

Mine is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; (why?): it is equivalent 
to "my house". Parse "my" as a personal pronoun in the 
possessive case, according to Bule III, and "house" as a 
predicate nominative, according to Kule II. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the possessive pro- 
nouns : 

1. That horse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours : 
it must be hers. 3. The money is your own. 4. Friend of 
mine, you are welcome. 5. That garden of theirs is a very 
tine one. 6. This book is not mine; it must be his or hers. 
7. She is an old friend of ours. 8. These books are yours, 
not theirs. 



Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A possessive pronoun ? 
Name the possessive pronouns. How is emphatic distinction de- 
noted? Repeat the order of parsing possessive pronouns. 



50. Relative Pronouns. 

1. The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, 
what, and that. 

Rem. — That is a relative when who, which, or whom can be 
used in its place. 

2. The Compound Relative Prononns are who- 
ever, whoso, whosoever, tvhichever, whichsoever, what- 
ever, and whatsoever. 

8. Some relative pronouns not only connect clauses, 
but also comprise in themselves both antecedent and 
relative. 



PRONOUNS. 83 

In the sentence, "I got what I desired", what is used in- 
stead of the thing which — "I got the thing which I desired". 
"Thing", the object of "got", is the antecedent, and is 
modified by "the" and "which I desired", both adjective 
elements. 

In the sentence, "Tell what you know", ivhat is equivalent 
to that ivhich — "Tell that which you know". "That", the 
object of "tell", is the antecedent, and is modified by "which 
you know", an adjective element. 

In the sentence, "Whatever is, is right", whatever is equiv- 
alent to that which — "That which is, is right". "That", the 
subject of the proposition, "That is right", is the antecedent, 
and "that", the subject, is modified by "which is", an adjec- 
tive element. 

In the sentence, "Whoever runs may read", whoever is 
equivalent to he who, or any person ivho — "He ivho runs may 
read". "He", the subject of the sentence, "He may read", 
is the antecedent of "who", and is modified by "who runs", 
an adjective element. 

In the sentence, "Whichever road you may take will lead 
to the city", whichever is equivalent to any which — "Any road 
which you may take", &c. "Any" and "which you may take" 
are adjective elements, modifying "road", the antecedent of 
"which". 

That part of a sentence which is introduced by a relative 
pronoun is called a Relative Clause. 

51. Declension. 



Singular and Plural. 
Norn., Who, 

Poss., Whose, 

Obj., Whom. 



Singular and Plural. 
Norn., Which, 

Poss., Whose, 

Obj., Which. 



84 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



52. Order of Parsing. 

1. A Pronoun, and why ? 

2. Relative, and why? 

3. Name its antecedent. 

4. Gender, person, and number ? Rule. 

5. Decline it. 

6. Case, and Rule. 



53. Models for Parsing. 

I. "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom." 

That ... is a pronoun ; (why ?) : relative ; it represents a pre- 
ceding word or phrase, to which it joins a limiting 
clause: its antecedent is "man": maculine gender, third 
person, singular number : Rule IX : nominative case ; it 
is the subject of the relative clause, "That findeth wis- 
dom": Rule I. 

II. "Whoever perseveres will succeed." 

Whoever is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): it is equiva- 
lent to he who, or any one who — "he" being the ante- 
cedent, and "who", the relative. Parse "he" as a per- 
sonal pronoun, subject of "will succeed", or "one" as 
an adjective used as a noun, subject of "will succeed", 
and "who" as a relative, subject of "perseveres", ac- 
cording to Rule I. 

III. "I remember what you said." 

What ... is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; (why?) : it is equiva- 
lent to that which — "that" being the antecedent part, 
and "which", the relative. Parse "that" as an adjec- 
tive used as a noun, in the objective case after 
" remember ". 



PRONOUNS. 85 

Which . . is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; (why?) : its antecedent 
is "that": neuter gender, third person, singular number: 
Kule IX: objective case; object of the transitive verb 
"said": Kule VI. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the pronouns : 

1. He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 2. This is the 
child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought was stolen. 
4. He will do what is right. 5. Ask for what you want. 6. 
That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This is the dog 
that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that 
lay in the house that Jack built. 8. My sister, whom I loved, 
is dead. 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on ""Velocipedes", 
and parse the nouns and pronouns. 



Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A relative pronoun ? What 
are the simple relatives? The compound relatives? What do 
some relatives comprise in themselves? To what is "what" equiv- 
alent? "Whatever"? "Whoever"? "Whichever"? "Whoso"? 
and "Whosoever"? Ans. — He who. Decline "who" and "which". 
What is a relative clause ? 

Repeat the order of parsing a relative pronoun. 



54. Interrogative Pronouns. 

1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, 
and what, when used in asking questions. 

2. The Subsequent of an interrogative pronoun is 
that part of the answer which it represents. 

Rem. — An interrogative pronoun must agree with its sub- 
sequent in gender, person, and number. Hence, when the 



86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

answer is not given, or clearly implied, its gender, person, and 
number are indeterminate. 

Ex. — " Who is hurt ? " The answer to this question not being 
given, it is evident that the gender, person, and number of "who" 
are indeterminate. 

"Who is hurt ? — Silas." The answer to this question is given. 
"Who" is masculine gender, third person, singular number, agree- 
ing with "Silas", its subsequent. 

Apply Eule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing "ante- 
cedent" to "subsequent". 



55. Order of Parsing. 

1. A Pronoun, and why? 

2. Interrogative, and why? 

3. Name its subsequent, if expressed. 

4. Gender, person, and number? Eule. 

5. Decline it. 

6. Case, and Eule. 



56. Models for Parsing. 

I. "Who invented gunpowder?" 

Who . is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; it is used in asking a 
question : its subsequent is not expressed : gender, person, 
and number indeterminate : nominative case; it is used as 
the subject of the proposition : Eule I. 

II. "What is that man?— A lawyer." 

What is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; (why?): its subse- 
quent is "lawyer": masculine gender, third person, singular 
number: Eule IX: nominative case; it is used as the pred- 
icate of the proposition : Eule II. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 



87 



EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the pronouns : 

1. Who came with you? 2. Whose horse ran away? 3. 
Whom did you call?— Mary. 4. What did you say? 5. What 
is that? — It is a velocipede. 6. Which will you have?— The 
large one. 7. Whom did you take me to be? 8. Who 
told you how to parse "what"? 9. I do not know who 
you are. 

10. "Alas for those who never sing, 

But die with all their music in them." — Holmes. 



Questions.— What are the interrogative pronouns? W T hat is 
the subsequent of an interrogative? With what must an interrog- 
ative agree in gender, person, and number? Eepeat the order oi 
parsing an interrogative. 



57. False Syntax. 

1. False Syntax is any violation of the laws of 
good usage, in the application of words or the con- 
struction of sentences. 

2. Most of the common errors in the use of language may 
be avoided by observing the "Cautions" in this and subse- 
quent sections. 

See Part I, Lesson IX, for model for correction. 

Caution I.— Do not omit the subjects of declarative sentences. 

Ex.— 1. Glad you have come. 2 Hope you will remain long 
with us. 3. What say? 4. 'Tis a poor school can't keep itself 
half an hour. 5. It was Johnson saved the drowning man. 6 
After a long tramp, felt very much fatigued. 7. Bead his poems : 
like them very much. Think them sublime. 



88 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Caution II. — Do not omit the sign of possession in forming 
the possessive case of nouns, nor use it in forming the possessive 
case of pronouns. 

Ex. — 1. Mr. Moody sells mens hats. 2. That boys father is my 
uncles landlord. 3. The horse threw it's rider. 4. That book is 
her's. 5. Frances mother is an actress. 6. Where was Mr. Pierce' 
arm broken? 7. Who's house is that. 

Caution ill. — Do not use the objective-case forms of pronouns 
as subjects or predicates of sentences. 

Ex. — 1. Her and me study algebra. 2. It is me. 3. It is her 
who you wish to see. 4. Him and you ought to go to school. 5. 
You and him and me were boys together. 

Caution IV. — Do not use "who" as the object of a transitive 
verb or preposition. 

Ex. — 1. Do you know who you are talking to? 2. He is a fel- 
low who I do not like. 3. Tell me who you work for. 

Caution V. — The second person should precede the third, and 
the third the first. 

Ex. — 1. He and you are in the same class. 2. I and you will 
not whisper. 3. I and he went skating. 

Caution VI. — Do not use a pronoun and its antecedent as 
subjects of the same proposition. 

Ex. — 1. Mr. Kellogg he has bought our farm. 2. Many words 
they darken speech. 3. The boys they all staid in at recess 4. 
The horse he run, and the man he hollered "whoa". 

Caution VII. — Avoid the use of different hinds of pronouns in 
the same construction. 

Ex. — 1. If you will go, I will take care of thy farm. 2. I 
hope you will put money into thy purse. 3. I will tell thee 
what we have, and which will suit you. 4. Learn thy lesson, 



FALSE SYNTAX. 89 

then amuse yourself. 5. You may have my sled, if you will 
lend me thy skates. 

Caution Vlll. — Do not use improper forms of possessive pro- 
nouns. 

Ex. — 1. That house is his'n. 2. Is that book your'n? 3. No, 
it is her'n. 4. He had no gun ; so he borrowed our'n. 5. You'uns 
should study harder. 6. We'uns are learning fast. 

Caution IX. — Do not use "which" to represent persons , or 
"who" to represent animals, children, or objects without life. 

Ex. — 1. She is a friend which I have long proved. 2. They 
which honor me, I will honor. 3. This is the child who was lost. 
4. That is the man which sells pictures. 5. It was our old dog 
Hero, who was killed. 6. I assisted the poor old woman which 
was hurt. 

Correct the following sentences by reference to Rule IX: 

1. Every person should mind their own business. 2. Each day 
has their own anxieties. 3. If any one hasn't voted, they will rise 
in their places. 4. Many a youth have injured their health by 
keeping late hours. 

Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? What 
are the simple personal pronouns? The compound personal pro- 
nouns? What does "you" represent? How is "we" used? 
"It"? Decline the personal pronouns. Repeat the order of 
parsing personal pronouns. 

What are the possessive pronouns ? How is emphatic distinction 
denoted? Repeat the order of parsing possessive pronouns. 

What is a relative pronoun? What are the simple relatives? 
The compound relatives? What do some relatives comprise in 
themselves? To what is "what" equivalent? "Whatever"? 
"Whoever"? "Whoso" and "Whosoever"? Decline "who" and 
"which". What is a relative clause? Repeat the order of parsing 
a relative pronoun. 

What are the interrogative pronouns ? What is the subsequent 
of an interrogative? With what must an interrogative agree in 
gender, person, and number? Repeat the order of parsing an in- 
terrogative. 

What is false syntax? Repeat the cautions. 



90 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 
58. Descriptive Adjectives. 

Most descriptive adjectives, by change of form or the addi- 
tion of modifying words, express quality in different degrees. 
This is called Comparison. 

1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to 
express different degrees of quality ; as, rich, richer, 
richest. 

2. There are three I>egrees of Comparison : Pos- 
itive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

8. The Positive I>egree expresses the simple qual- 
ity, or an equal degree of the quality; as, "An old 
man"; "She is as good as she is beautiful". 

Rem. — The suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, &c., 
expresses a small amount of the quality; as, saltish, having a 
little taste of salt ; rather warm, somewhat awkward. 

4. The Comparative I>egree ascribes to one of two 
objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than 
that expressed by the positive; as, "An older man"; 
"Charles is more studious than Mary". 

The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by 
adding r or er to the positive : the comparative of adjectives 
of more than one syllable is formed by prefixing more or less 
to the positive; as, rough, rougher; more honorable, less hon- 
orable. 

5. The Superlative I>egree ascribes the highest 
or lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two 



ADJECTIVES. 91 

objects; as, "The oldest man"; "The least fertile farm 
in the township". 

The superlative of monosyllables is regularly formed by 
adding st or est to the positive: of adjectives of more than one 
syllable, by prefixing most or least to the positive ; as, roughest, 
most honorable, least honorable. 

Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, better, 
best; bad, worse, worst. 

Some adjectives can not be compared; as, square, infinite, 
supreme. 

Adjectives should not be doubly compared. 

EXERCISES. 

Compare the following adjectives : 

Proud, angry, laughable, cheerful, holy, wise, agreeable, 
honest, sensible, near, far, little, skillful. 

Tell the degree of comparison of the following adjectives: 

Taller, most useful, more hopeful, least sensible, greenish, 
less confident, rather nice, farthest, eldest, later, stormy, very 
frightful. 

59. Definitive Adjectives. 

1. Pronominal Adjectives are those definitives, 
most of which may, without the article prefixed, rep- 
resent a noun understood. 

The principal pronominals are, 

1. The Demonstratives, this, that, these, those, former, 
latter, both, same, yon, yonder. 

2. The Distributives, each, every, either, neither. 

3. The indefinites, all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, 



92 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

few, little, many, much, no, none, one, own, other, several, 
some, sundry, which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, 
whatsoever. 

Rem. l. — The phrases such a, many a, what a, but a, only a, 
&c, are pronominals, and should be parsed as single words. 

Rem. 2. — Some pronominals can be compared like descrip- 
tive adjectives; as, few, fewer, fewest, much, more, most. 

2. IVimieral Adjectives are those definitives which 
denote number and order definitely ; as, two, fourth, 
fourfold. 

There are three classes of numeral adjectives: Cardinal, Or- 
dinal, and Multiplicative. 

1. Cardinals denote the number of objects; as, two, four, a 
thousand. 

2. Ordinals mark the position of an object in a series ; as, 
second, fourth, thousandth. 

3. Multiplicative* denote how many fold; as, twofold, 
fourfold. 

60. Order of Parsing. 

1. An Adjective, and why? 

2. Descriptive or definitive, and why? 

3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison. 

4. Degree of comparison? 

5. What does it modify? Rule. 



61. Models for Parsing. 

I. "Fearful storms sweep over these islands." 

Fearful is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; it modifies a noun 
by denoting some quality : compared, pos. fearful, com. 



ADJECTIVES. 93 

more fearful, sup. most fearful: positive degree, and be- 
longs to "storms". Kule XII. "An adjective or par- 
ticiple belongs to some noun or pronoun." 

These. . is an adjective; (why?): definitive; it defines without de- 
noting any quality : it can not be compared, and belongs 
to "islands' 7 : Eule XII. 

II. "I have been there many a time." 
Many a is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): it can not be 
compared, and belongs to "time": Eule XII. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, 
and adjectives : 

1. I saw a large drove of cattle. 2. Jane is studying modern 
history. 3. Fido is a Newfoundland dog. 4. You may have 
the smallest melon. 5. Every man received a penny. 6. Either 
road leads to town. 7. That course was most honorable. 8. 
He took a twofold view of the subject. 9. What noise is that? 
10. Two men wanted the fourth horse. 

11. With many a curve my banks I fret, 
By many a field and fallow, 
And many a fairy foreland, set 

With willow, weed, and mallow. — Tennyson. 

Write the first sentence of a composition on "What I did last 
Saturday", and parse the adjectives. 

62. False Syntax. 

Caution I. — Do not use a before vowel sounds, nor an before 
consonant sounds. 

Ex. — 1. An hundred cents make one dollar. 2. There should 
be an universal rejoicing. 3. This is a open country. 4. He is 
a honest man. 



94 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Caution II. — Do not use them for those, this here for this, 
or that 'ere for that. 

Ex. — 1. Look at them beggars. 2. That ? ere girl is not very 
handsome. 3. What is the name of this here town ? 4. Put them 
peaches in the pantry. 

Caution ill. — Do not use adverbs as adjectives. 

Ex. — 1. Did you arrive safely? 2. The country looks beauti- 
fully. 3. The eggs boiled hardly. 4. I feel poetically. 5. Mat- 
ters look more favorably just now. 6. I like our now minister. 

Caution IV D — Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. 

Ex. — 1. He is the most miserablest man in town. 2. No man 
can 't be more neutraler than I on the temperance question. 3. He 
seems more cheerfuller to-day. 4. Always choose the lesser of two 
evils. 5. That is more preferable than to be imprisoned. 

Caution V. — Omit the article before a word used as a title, or 
as a mere name. 

Ex. — 1. They gave him the title of an emperor. 2. A rascal 
formerly meant a servant. 3. Riches and honor are the gifts of 
fortune. 4. He is a better sailor than a soldier. 5. They elected 
him as a chairman. 

Caution VI. — Place ordinal adjectives before cardinals in most 
constructions. 

Ex. — 1. The four first houses on the right hand belong to 
me. 2. Sing the two first and two last verses. 3. Read the three 
first chapters. 

Caution VII. — Plural adjectives should modify plural nouns: 
singular adjectives, singular nouns. 

Ex. — 1. I do not like these kind of apples. 2. These sort of 
people don't amount to much. 3. Those yoke of oxen cost 
seventy-five dollars. 



VERBS. 95 

Questions. — What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? 
What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? 
What is the positive degree ? What does the suffix ish denote ? 
" Rather"? "Somewhat"? What is the comparative degree? How 
is it regularly formed? What is the superlative degree? How is 
it regularly formed? How are some adjectives compared? Can 
all adjectives be compared? 

What is a definitive adjective? What are pronominal adjec- 
tives ? Name some of the principal demonstratives : distributives : 
indefinites. What is said of the phrases such a, &c? What are 
numeral adjectives? Cardinals? Ordinals? Multiplicatives ? 

Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. 

Repeat the cautions in false syntax. 



THE VERB. 

To verbs belong Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, and 
Person. 

Let the pupil now review section 19, Part II. 

63. Toice. 

A verb may represent its subject as acting or as being acted 
upon. In the sentence, "John struck James", "John" the 
subject, is represented as acting: in the sentence, "James was 
struck by John", "James", the subject, is represented as be- 
ing acted upon. This property is called voice, and is peculiar 
to transitive verbs. 

1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 

2. Transitive verbs have two voices : an Active and 

a Passive Voice. 

3. The Active Toice represents the subject as act- 
ing upon an object; as, "The boy wrote a letter "; 
"Eli is studying his lesson" 



96 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as 
being acted upon; as, "The letter was written" ; "The 
lesson was studied". 

5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some 
form of the verb to be to the perfect participle of a 
transitive verb. 

Rem. — A verb in the active voice is changed into the pas- 
sive by making the direct object in the active the subject in 
the passive; as, "The cat caught the mouse " {active)-, "The 
mouse ivas caught by the cat" (passive). 

Tell which verbs are active and which passive in the following 

exercises : 

1. The girl sings. 2. Fire burns. 3. The mail was robbed. 
4. Truants will be punished. 5. A meteor was seen. 6. He 
should have told the truth. 7. Children love play. 8. He has 
found his knife. 9. A watch was found in the street. 10. The 
burglar might have been arrested. 11. The bad boy was 
whipped for stealing apples. 



Questions. — What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intran- 
sitive verb ? A copulative verb ? 

What is a participle ? The present participle ? How does the 
present participle always end? What is the perfect participle? 
How does it usually end? What is the compound participle? 
How is it formed? 

What belong to verbs? What is voice? How many voices 
have transitive verbs ? What is the active voice ? The passive 
voice ? How is the passive voice formed ? How is a verb in the 
active voice changed into the passive? Give examples. 



64. Mode. 

1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, 
or state is expressed. 



VERBS. 97 

2. There are five modes : Indicative, Subjunctive, 
Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

3. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, 
or as actually existing; as, "Fire burns"; "A battle 
iv as fought" . 

4. The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubt- 
ful, as a supposition, or as a future contingency ; as, 
"If this be true, all will end well"; "I shall go, if 
you remain". 

5. The Potential Mode asserts the power, neces- 
sity, liberty, duty, or liability of acting, or of being in 
a certain state; as, "He can talk"; "You must go"; 
"They should be more careful". 

Rem. — May, can, must, might, could, would, and should are 
the signs of the potential mode. 

6. The Imperative Mode expresses a command, 
an exhortation, an entreaty, or a permission; as, "Go"; 
u Do not hurt me". 

7. The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, be- 
ing, or state, without affirming it; as, " To go"; "He 
wants to speak". 

Rem. 1. — The infinitive may usually be known by the sign 
to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the words bid, 
dare, feel, help, let, make, need, see, and a few others ; as, "Let 
them [to] come on"; "See him [to] run 1 ?; "Bid them [to] 
come'\ 

Rem. 2. — The indicative and potential modes may be used 
in asking questions; as, "Is he honest?" "Has she arrived?" 
"May I go home?" 
E. GL— 7. 



98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sentences: 

1. The army encamped by the river. 2. Eun for some water. 
3. You must recite your lesson. 4. I will recite my lesson, if 
I can. 5. I like to play. 6. Hope thou in God. 7. Do let 
me go to the picnic. 8. He should have come home. 9. Lift 
up your heads, O ye gates ! 10. Were I rich, I would purchase 
that property. 

11. Hope not the cure of sin till Self is dead; 
Forget it in love's service, and the debt 
Thou canst not pay the angels will forget. — Whittier. 



Questions. — What is mode? How many modes are there? 
Name them. What is the indicative mode? What is the sub- 
junctive mode? What is the potential mode? What are the 
signs of the potential mode? What is the imperative mode? 
What is the infinitive mode? What is the sign of the infinitive 
mode? What modes are used in asking questions? 



65. Tense. 

1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 

2. There are six tenses : the Present, the Present 
Perfect^ the Past, the Past Perfect, the Future, and 
the Future Perfect. 

3. The Present Tense denotes present time; as, 
"I write"; "The wind is blowing". 

4. The Present Perfect Tense represents an ac- 
tion or event as past, but connected with present time ; 
as, "I have written"; "The wind has been blowing". 

5. The Past Tense denotes past time; as, "I 
wrote"; "The wind blew". 



VERBS. 99 

6. The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as 
ended or completed in time fully past; as ? "I had 
written"; " The bridge had fallen before we reached it". 

7. The Future Tense denotes future time; as, "I 
shall write"; "The lion shall eat straw like the ox". 

8. The Future Perfect Tense represents an act as 
finished or ended at or before a certain future time ; 
as, "I shall have written the letter before the mail 
closes". 

66. Signs of the Tenses. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present, . . . Simple form of the verb. 
Past, . . . When regular, add ed to the simple form. 
Future, . . . Prefix shall or will to the simple form. 
Present Perfect, " have, hast, or have to the perfect participle. 
Past Perfect, . " had or hadst to the perfect participle. 
Future Perfect, " shall have or will have to the perfect par- 
ticiple. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

If, though, except, unless, &c, placed before tense forms given in 
the conjugation. 

Potential Mode. 

Present, . . . Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form. 

Past, ... " might, could, would, or should to the simple 
form. 

Present Perfect, " may, can, or must have to the perfect par- 
ticiple. 

Past Perfect, . " might, could, would, or should have to the 
perfect participle. 



100 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present, . . . Let, or a command. 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present, . . . Prefix to to the simple form. 

Present Perfect, " to have to the perfect participle. 

Participles. 

Present, . . . Add ing to the simple form. 
Perfect, . . . When regular, add ed or d to the simple form. 
Compound, . . Prefix having to the perfect participle, or having 
been to the present or perfect participle. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the tense of the verbs in the following sentences: 

1. Emma sings. 2. I went home. 3. John ran. 4. Write. 
5. Let him go. 6. The man shouted. 7. I had been taught. 
8. They will succeed. 9. We shall be glad. 10. The letter will 
have been written. 11. If you go, I shall stay. 12. You might 
study. 13. He may have written. 14. Know most of the 
rooms of thy native country, before thou goest over the thresh- 
old thereof. — Fuller. 



Questions. — What is tense? How many tenses are there? 
What is the present tense ? The present perfect ? The past ? The 
past perfect ? The future ? The future perfect ? Give the signs of 
the tenses. 

What is mode? How many modes are there? What is the 
indicative mode? The subjunctive mode? The potential mode? 
The imperative mode? The infinitive mode? 



67, Person and Number. 

1. The Person and Number of verbs are the 
changes which they undergo to mark their agreement 



with their subjects. 



VERBS. 101 

2. A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

Rem. — The infinitive, having no subject, has neither person 
nor number. 

68. Auxiliaries. 

Auxiliary Yerbs are those which are used in the 
conjugation of other verbs. They are do, be, have, 
shall, may, can. must. 

Rem. — Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal 
verbs; as. "He does well"; "'I am"; "He has money"; "He 
wills it". 

69. Impersonal Verbs. 

A TTnipersonal Verb is one by which an act or 
state is asserted independently of any particular sub- 
ject; as, "It snows": "It behooves us to be vratchfuT\ 



Questions. — What is meant by the person and number of a 
verb? With what must a verb agree in person and number? 
What are auxiliary verbs? Name them. Which of these are 
sometimes used as principal verbs ? What is a unipersonal verb ? 



70. Conjugation. 

1. The Conjugation of a verb is the correct ex- 
pression, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, 
persons, and numbers. 

2. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present 
indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect par- 
ticiple. 



102 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

3. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form, 
through the different modes and tenses, in a single 
person and number. 

71. Synopsis of the Terb "To Be". 

Principal Farts. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 

Be, or am. Was. Been. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present, ... I am. Past Perfect, . I had been. 

Present Perfect, I have been. Future, ... I shall be. 

Past, ... I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present, . . . If I be. Fast, If I were. 

Past Perfect, ... If I had been. 

Potential Mode. 

Present, ... I may, can, or must be. 

Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have been. 

Past, ... I might, could, would, or should be. 

Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have been. 

Conjugation of the Yerfo "To Be". 

Note. — Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and 
third, denote futurity. Will, in the first person, and shall in 
the second and third, denote determination or necessity. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are. 



VERBS. 



103 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. I have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 

3. He has been; 



1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, 

3. He was; 



Plural. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 



PAST TENSE. 



1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 



1. I shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 

3. He will be ; 



FUTURE TENSE. 

1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 

3. They will be. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 



2. Thou wilt have been, 

3. He will have been ; 



2. You will have been, 

3. They will have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 



1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert, 

3. If he were; 



PAST TENSE. 



1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 



104 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. . Plural. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be; 3. They may be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been; 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been; 3. They might have been. 

Note. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must 
IMPEKATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Be, or do thou be; 2. Be, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be; Present Perfeet, To have been. 



VERBS. 105 

PAETICIPLES. 
Present, Being; Perfect, Been; Compound y Having been. 

72. Synopsis of the Yerb "To Love". 

ACTIVE VOICE. 





Principal Parts. 




sent Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Perfect Participle. 


Love. 


Loved. 


Loved. 



Indicative Mode. 

Present, ... I love. Past Perfect , . I had loved. 

Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, . . . I shall love. 
Past, ... I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present, ... If I love. Past, ... If I loved. 

Past Perfect, ... If I had loved. 

Potential Mode. 

Present, ... I may, can, or must love. 

Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved. 

Past, .... I might, could, would, or should love. 

Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have loved. 



Conjugation of the Verb "To Loye". 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

3. He loves ; 3. They love. 



106 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved; 3. They loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 



VERBS. 107 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved ; 3, If they had loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love; 3. They may love. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

IMPEEATIVE MODE. 
2. Love, or do thou love ; 2. Love, or do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To love; Present Perfect, To have loved. 



108 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present, Loving; Perfect, Loved; Compound, Having loved. 

73. Synopsis of the Verb "To Love". 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing the various forms 
of the verb to be to the perfect participle. The tense of the 
verb to be determines the tense in the Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present, I am loved. 

Present Perfect, .... I have been loved. 

Past, I was loved. 

Past Perfect, . .... I had been loved. 

Future, I shall be loved. 

Future Perfect, .... I shall have been loved. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present , . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved. 
Past Perfect, . . If I had been loved. 

Potential Mode. 

Present, I may be loved. 

Present Perfect, .... I may have been loved. 

Past, I might be loved. 

.Past Perfect, I might have been loved. 

Note. — The pupil should be required to commit to memory 
the Synopsis, then to write the full conjugation of to love, or 
some other transitive verb, in both voices, correcting or veri- 
fying his work by comparing it with the paradigms already 
given. 



VERBS. 109 

74. Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. 

1. The Progressive, the Emphatic, and the Interrog- 
ative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. 

2. The Progressive Forin is used to denote action, 
being, or state in progress; as, "He was writing". 

In the Progressive Form, the various forms of the verb to be 
are prefixed to the present participle. 

3. The Emphatic Forin represents an act with 
emphasis; as, "I do write"; "He did write". 

4. The Interrogative Form is used in asking 
questions; as, "Love I?" "Did he write?" 

SYNOPSIS. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present, I am loving. 

Present Perfect, .... I have been loving. 

Past, I was loving. 

Past Perfect, I had been loving. 

Future, I shall be loving. 

Future Perfect, .... I shall have been loving. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present, . . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were loving. 
Past Perfect, . . If I had been loving. 

Potential Mode. 

Present. I may be loving. 

Present Perfect, .... I may have been loving. 

Past, I might be loving. 

Past Perfect, I might have been loving. 



110 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present, Be thou loving. 

Participles. 

Present, . Loving. Compound, . Having been loving. 

i 

THE EMPHATIC FORM. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present, . . I do love. Past, . . I did love. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present, . . If I do love. Past, . . If I did love. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present, Do thou love. 

INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

Present, . . , Love I ? Do I love ? Am I loving ? 

Present Perfect, Have I loved ? Have I been loving ? 

Past, . . .Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving? 

Past Perfect, . Had I loved? Had I been loving? 

Future, . . . Shall I love? Shall I be loving? 

Future Perfect, Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving? 

Potential Mode. 

Present, Must I love? 

Present Perfect, .... Must I have loved ? 

Past, Might I love ? 

Past Perfect, Might I have loved ? 



VERBS. Ill 

EXERCISES. 

Write a synopsis of the transitive verbs think, instruct, com- 
mand, punish, teach, and see, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and 
Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices. 

Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the , 

following sentences: 

1. He ran. 2. You teach. 3. They have seen. 4. If he go. 
5. They may have written. 6. Has he departed? 7. They 
will command. 8. Emma will have recited. 9. The army 
will be disbanded. 

10. America was discovered. 11. The people should be con- 
tented. 12. He has invented a velocipede. 13. Attend to your 
lesson. 14. He can go, if the carriage is not too full. 15. The 
man loves to see it rain. 



Questions. — What is conjugation ? What are the principal 
parts of a verb? What is the synopsis of a verb? Give the 
synopsis of "to be". Of "to love", in both the active and the 
passive voice. 

What are the coordinate forms of conjugation? What is the 
progressive form ? The emphatic form ? The interrogative form ? 
Give the synopsis of each form. 



75. Regular and Irregular Verbs, 

1. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and 
perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present 
indicative; as, love, love-d, love-d; count, coimt-ed, 
count-ed. 

2. An Irregular Verb is one which does not form 
its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to the present indicative ; as, go, ivent, gone ; see, saw, 
seen; do, did, done. 



112 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



76. Irregular Verbs. 



The following list contains 
of the irregular verbs. Those 
ular forms. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Breed, 


bred, 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Bring, 


brought, 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Build, 


built, r. 






J awaked, 
1 awoke. 


Burn, 


burnt, r. 


Awake, 


awoke, R 


Burst, 


burst, 


Bear, 


f bore, 
) ( bare, 


born. 


Buy, 


bought, 


(bring forth 


Cast, 


cast, 


Bear, (can-?/), bore, 


borne. 


Catch, 


caught, r. 


Beat, 


beat, 


f beaten, 

( beat. 


Chide, 


chid, \ 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Choose, 


chose, 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Cleave, 


f cleaved, 
1 clave, 


Tipcrpt 


f begat, 
1 begot, 


begotten, 


(adhere) 


_ucw ci. 


begot. 




( cleft, 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Cleave, 


•< clove, 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


(split) 


I clave, 


Belay, 


belaid, r 


. belaid, r. 


Cling, 


clung, 


Bend, 


bent, r. 


bent, r. 


Clothe, 


f clothed, 
1 cla,d, 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


Beseech, 


besought 


besought. 


Come, 


came, 


Bet, 


bet, r. 


bet, R. 


Cost, 


cost, 


Betide, 


f betided, 
t betid, 


betided, 


Creep, 


crept, 




betid. 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


Bid, 


(bid, 
1 bade, 


bid, 


Cut, 


cut, 


bidden. 


Dare, 


durst, R. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


Bite, 


bit, 


j bitten, 
(bit. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 






Do, 


did, 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Draw, 


drew, 


Bless, 


f blessed, 
1 blest, 


blessed, 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


blest. 


Dress, 


drest, R. 


Break, 


f broke, 
1 brake, 


broken, 
broke. 


Drink, 


drank, -j 



the Principal Parts of most 
marked R. have also the reg- 



Perfect 
Participle. 

bred, 
brought, 
built, r. 
burnt, R. 
burst, 
bought, 
cast. 

caught, R. 
chidden, 
. chid, 
chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, 

cloven, 

cleaved. 

clung. 

clothed, 

clad. 

come. 

cost. 

crept. 

crowed. 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt. 

dug, R. 

done. 

drawn. 

dreamt, R. 

drest, R. 

drunk, 

drunken. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



113 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Lean, 


leant, R. 


leant, r. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Leap, 


leapt, r. 


leapt, r. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Learn, 


learnt, R 


. learnt, r 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Forbear, 
Forget, 


forbore, 
forgot, 


forbore. 
f forgotten, 
( forgot. 


Lie, 

(recline), 

Light, 


}lay> 
lit, r. 


lain, 
lit, r. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Freight, 


freighted, fraught, R. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Get, 


got, 


(got, 
\ gotten. 


Mean, 
Meet, 


meant, 
met, 


meant, 
met. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilt, r. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


girt, R. 


Pass, 


past, r. 


past. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Go, 
Grave, 


went, 
graved, 


gone, 
graven, r. 


Pen, 

(inclose), 


[■ pent, R, 


pent, R. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Plead 


( plead, R. 
1 P led , 


plead, R. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


JL Av/Ct'M.» 


pled. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hung, r. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


quit, r. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Rap, 


rapt, R. 


rapt, R. 


Heave, 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, r. 


Reave, 


reft, 


reft. 


Hide, 


hid, 


f hidden, 
( hid. 


Rend, 
Rid, 


rent, 
rid, 


rent, 
rid. 


Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 


hit, 

held, 

hurt, 


hit. 
f held, 
1 holden. 

hurt. 


Ride, 
Ring, 


rode, 

f rang, 
1 rung, 


f ridden, 
( rode. 

rung. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Kneel, 


knelt, r. 
E. G.— 8. 


knelt. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, R. 



114 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Bun, 
Saw, 


ran, 
sawed, 


run. 
sawn, r. 


Spin, 


( spun, 
( span, 


spun. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Spit, 


| spit, 
1 spat, 


spit, 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


spitten. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Split, 


split, R. 


split, R. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Spoil, 


spoilt, R. 


spoilt, R. 


Seethe, 


sod, R. 


sodden, R. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Shake, 
Shape, 


shook, 
shaped, 


shaken, 
shapen, R. 


Spring, 


f sprang, 
1 sprung, 


sprung. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, R. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Shear, 


shore, R. 


shorn, R. 


Stave, 


stove, R. 


stove, r. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Stay, 


staid, R. 


staid, r. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Stride, 


j strid, 
( strode, 


strid, 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


stridden. 


Shut, 
Sing, 


shut, 

f san g, 
1 sung, 


shut, 
sung. 


Strike, 
String, 


struck, 
strung, 


( struck, 

1 stricken. 

strung. 


Sink, 
Sit, 


f sank, 

1 sunk, 

sat, 


sunk, 
sat. 


Strive, 
Strow, 


strove, 
strowed, 


striven, 
f strowed, 
1 strown. 


Slay, 
Sleep, 


slew, 
slept, 


slain, 
slept. 


Swear, 


f swore, 
1 sware, 


sworn. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R 


Smell, 
Smite, 


smelt, R. 
smote, 


smelt, r. 
f smitten, 
1 smit. 


Swim, 
Swing, 


f swam, 

1 swum, 

swung, 


swum, 
swung. 


Sow, 

(scatter) 


r sowed, 


sown, r. 


Take, 
Teach, 


took, 
taught, 


taken, 
taught. 


Speak, 
Speed, 


spoke, 
sped, r. 


spoken, 
sped, r. 


Tear, 


( tore, 
1 tare, 


torn. 


Spell, 


spelt, R. 


spelt, r. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Spill, 


spilt, % 


spilt, r. 


Thrive, 


throve, R. thriven, r 



DEFECTIVE AND REDUNDANT VERBS. 



115 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Wet, 


wet, r. 


wet, r. 


Tread, 


trod, 


f trodden, 
( trod. 


Whet, 
Win, 


whet, r. 
won, 


whet, r. 
won. 


Wake, 


woke, R. 


woke, r. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


Work, 


wrought, e 


. wrought, r 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung, 


Weave, 


wove, r. 


woven, r. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Wed, 


wed, r. 


wed, R. 









77. Defectiye and Redundant Verbs. 

1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of 
the principal parts. 

They are beware, from be and aware, ought, quoth, 
quod, wit, and its derivatives, toot, wis, wert, wist, wote. 

2. Kedimdant Verbs are those which have more 
than one form for their past tense and perfect participle ; 
as, cleave, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved. 



Questions.— What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? A 
defective verb? Which are the defective verbs? What are re- 
dundant verbs ? Give examples, 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences, using this 

MODEL. 
"The man throwed a stone." 
This sentence is incorrect. The word " throwed " should be 
" threw", the past indicative of the verb " throw". The sentence 
should read, "The man threw a stone". 

1. I have saw some fine cattle to-day. 2. He ought to have 
went home. 3. The beads were stringed on a silk thread. 



116 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

4. He has brung some snow into the school-house. 5. The 
cloth was weaved by hand. 6. The horse come cantering 
along. 7. This coat has wore well. 

8. The cars have ran off the track. 9. The bells ringed 
when the news was got. 10. I dumb the tree and shaked the 
apples off. 11. That candle should be blowed out. 12. I laid 
down, and ris much refreshed. 13. Was the cow drove to pas- 
ture ? 14. The plastering has fell from the ceiling. 15. I seen 
him git it. 

Correct all errors in the use of irregular verbs you may notice 
in your conversation ivith your school-mates. 

78. Order of Parsing, 

1. A Verb, and why? 

2. Regular or irregular, and why? 

3. Give its principal parts. 

4. Copulative, Transitive, or Intransitive, and why? 

5. Voice, and why ? 

6. Mode, and why ? 

7. Tense, and why? 

8. Person and number, and why? Rule. 

79. Models for Parsing. 

I. "Liberty is sweet." 

Is is a verb; it is a word which denotes being : irregular; 

it does not form its past tense and perfect participle 
by adding d or ed to the present indicative : principal 
parts are pres. am, past ind. was, perf. part, been: 
copulative; it asserts the predicate of the subject: in- 
dicative mode ; it asserts a fact : present tense; it denotes 
present time : third person, singular number, to agree 
with its subject " liberty". Rule XIII. "A verb 
must agree with its subject in person and number." 



MODELS FOR PARSING. 



117 



II. "I shall go, if you remain." 
Shall go ... is a verb; (why?): irregular; (why?): give its prin- 
cipal parts: intransitive; it does not require an ob- 
ject to complete its meaning : indicative mode ; ( why ?) : 
future tense; it denotes future time : first person, sin- 
gular number; (why?) Kule XIII. "A verb must 
agree with its subject in person and number," 

Remain ... is a verb; (why?): regular; it forms its past indica- 
tive and perfect participle by adding ed to the pres- 
ent indicative : give the principal parts : intransi- 
tive; (why?): subjunctive mode; it represents an act 
as conditional ; present tense ; (why?): second person, 
singular or plural number; (why ?) : Rule XIII. 

III. "The boy caught the horse." 
Caught .... is a verb; (why?) : irregular; (why?) : give the prin- 
cipal parts: transitive; it requires an object to com- 
plete its meaning: active voice; it represents its sub- 
ject as acting: indicative mode; (why?) : past tense; 
(why?): third person, singular number; (why?): 
Rule XIII. 



IV. "We heard the owl hooting." 
Hooting ... is a participle; it partakes of the properties of a 
verb and an adjective: present participle; it denotes 
continuance: it belongs to "owl". Rule XII. "An 
adjective or participle belongs to some noun or pro- 
noun." 

V. "I study to improve." 
To improve is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?): give the prin- 
cipal parts : transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?): 
infinitive mode; it expresses action without affirming 
it: it depends upon "study". Rule XVII. "An 
infinitive not used as a noun depends upon the word 
it limits." 



118 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and participles 

in the following sentences : 

1. The earth rings hollow from below. 2. We soon shall 
reach the boundless sea. 3. The night was tempestuous. 4. 
He should be more industrious. 5. Eemember thy Creator. 
6. The poor must work in their grief. 7. I could not learn that 
lesson. 8. He was beaten with many stripes. 

9. Clarence has been chosen captain. 10. They might have 
finished their task yesterday. 11. The crops were destroyed by 
grasshoppers. 12. The girls were playing croquet. 13. He did 
not return my umbrella. 14. Is he writing a letter? 15. Help 
us to help each other, 16. Shake off the dust that blinds thy 
sight. 

17. No cheating nor bargaining will ever get a single thing 
out of Nature's "establishment" at half price. — Ruskin. 

18. May is a pious fraud of the almanac, 
A ghastly parody of real Spring, 

Shaped out of snow and breathed with eastern winds. 

Lowell. 

Write five answers to questions in your geography lesson, and 
parse the verbs. 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Xazy Boys", 
and parse the verbs. 

80. False Syntax. 

Caution I. — Never use will for shall, nor would for should. 

Ex. — 1. I was afraid I would be hurt. 2. If I would try, I 
would learn fast. 3. I shall go : no one will prevent me. 4. I 
would be very careless if I would leave my books at home. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 119 

Caution II. — Tense-forms should express time in harmony 
with that indicated by other parts of the sentence. 

Ex. — 1. They have visited us yesterday. 2. You may take a 
walk after you finish your task. 3. He was tardy every day this 
week. 4. I would help you, if you can 7 t get some one else to do 
so. 5. He was under obligations to have assisted me. 

Caution ill. — General truths should be expressed in the pres- 
ent tense. 

Ex. — 1. I have heard that each star was a sun. 2. I always 
thought that meteors were falling stars. 3. What did you say was 
the capital of Indiana? 4. I should think it was time for school 
to be dismissed. 5. I always thought that dew fell. 

Caution IV. — Do not use the perfect participle to express past 
time y nor the past tense form instead of the perfect participle. 

Ex. — 1. He come here last week. 2. He done it : I seen him. 

3. The tree had fell, and it was broke in two. 4. The squirrel had 
ran up a tree. 5. He set down on a log. 

Caution V. — Avoid the inelegant use of participles in place 
of other forms. 

Ex. — 1. Going to Congress is no evidence of greatness. 2. I do 
not like being punished. 3. He neglected the plowing of his land. 

4. Boys, be ashamed of being found in bad company. 

Caution VI. — Do not use is n't or aint for is not, have n't 
or haint for nave not, 'taint for it is not, might of for 
might have, dec. 

Ex. — 1. 'Taint one swallow that makes a summer. 2. Jane 
haint got her lesson. 3. Aint you going to the concert ? 4. Sam- 
uel might of done his task long ago. 5. He should of taken the 
accommodation train. 

Correct all inaccuracies in the use of verbs you may observe in 
your own language or that of your school-mates. 



120 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Correct the following sentences by reference to Rules XIII and XIV: 
1. Henry and Charles was very much disappointed. 2. You 
was there, I suppose. 3. The yoke of oxen were sold for a hun- 
dred dollars. 4. Ellen are not at school to-day. 5. The scissors 
is dull. 6. The fleet were seen off Hatteras. 7. Time and tide 
waits for no man. 



Questions. — What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intran- 
sitive verb? A copulative verb? 

What belong to verbs ? What is voice ? How many voices are 
there ? What is the active voice ? The passive voice ? How is 
the passive voice formed ? 

What is mode ? How many modes are there ? What is the 
indicative mode? The subjunctive mode? The potential mode? 
The imperative mode ? The infinitive mode ? What are the signs 
of the potential mode ? The sign of the infinitive mode ? When 
is it omitted? 

What is tense? How many tenses are there? What is the 
present tense? The present perfect? The past? The past per- 
fect? The future? The future perfect? 

What is an auxiliary verb ? A unipersonal verb ? 

What is conjugation? What are the principal parts of a verb? 
What is the synopsis of a verb? Give a synopsis of "to be". Of 
"to love", in both voices. 

What are the coordinate forms of conjugation? What is the 
progressive form? The emphatic form? The interrogative form? 
Give the synopsis of each form. 

What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? A defective verb? 
A redundant verb ? 

Give the order of parsing verbs. 

Repeat the cautions. 

THE ADVERB. 
81. Classes. 

1. Adverbs are divided into five classes : Adverbs 
of Time, Place, Cause, Manner, and Degree. 

2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, When? How 
long? How often? 

Ex. — After, again, always, early, never, frequently, hereafter, 
lately, immediately, now, often, seldom, then, when, &c. 



ADVERBS. 121 

3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where f Whither ? 
WJience ? 

Ex. — Above, below, hither, here, there, herein, whence, some- 
where, far, yonder, forth, aloof, away, backwards, first, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, Why? Where- 
fore f 

Ex. — Wherefore, therefore, then, why? 

5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, How f 

Ex. — Amiss, anyhow, well, badly, easily, sweetly, indeed, nay, 
no, perhaps, peradventure, perchance, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much f 
How little f 

Ex. — Almost, enough, even, equally, much, more, little, wholly, 
partly, only, scarcely, nearly, too, chiefly, &c. 

7. An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words used 
and parsed as a single adverb; as, "In general", "hand in 
hand", "no more". 

8. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect two prop- 
ositions, and modify a word in each. 

Ex. — "I shall see you when I return." The conjunctive adverb 
"when" connects the two clauses, "I shall see you" and "I re- 
turn", modifying "shall see" in the first clause, and "return" in 
the second. 

82. Comparison of Adverbs. 

1. Many adverbs admit of comparison. 

2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the 
simple form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; 
soon, sooner, soonest. 

3. Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing more 
and most, less and least to the simple form ; as, wisely, more 
wisely, most wisely ; swiftly, less swiftly, least swiftly. 



122 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

4. Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better, 
best; little, less, least. 



83. Order of Parsing, 

1. An Adverb, and why? 

2. Compare it. 

3. Tell what it modifies. Kule. 



84. Models for Parsing. 

I. "The soldiers fought bravely." 
Bravely . . is an adverb; it is used to modify the meaning of a 
verb: compared, pos. bravely, com. more bravely, sup. 
most bravely: it modifies "fought". Rule XVII. 
"Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and 
adverbs." 

II. "I will go whenever you wish." 

Whenever is an adverb; (why?): conjunctive; it connects two 
clauses, and modifies a word in each : it modifies 
"will go" and "wish": Eule XVII. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs 
in the following sentences: 

1. I saw him frequently. 2. You must call often. 3. How 
rapidly the moments fly. 4. He has been reproved again and 
again. 5. Perhaps he can tell you. 6. Doubtless, he is a wise 
man. 7. Perad venture, the old dragon is asleep. 8. I have 
not seen him since I returned from California. 

9. Live and love, 

Doing both nobly, because lowlily. 
Live and work, strongly, because patiently. 

Mrs. Browning. 



PREPOSITIONS. 123 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on " My L.ast Vaca- 
tion", and parse the verbs and adverbs. 

85. False Syntax. 

Caution I. — Avoid the use of two negatives to express negation. 

Ex. — 1. I don't know. nothing about geometry. 2. Don't say 
nothing to nobody about it. 3. You do n't look no better than you 
did yesterday. 4. We did n't find nobody at home. 5. The ped- 
dler had n't got no needles. 

Caution II. — Do not use adjectives as adverbs, 

Ex. — 1. You ought to read slower. 2. He does not speak dis- 
tinct. 3. Helen seems tolerable well. 4. His voice was scarce 
heard. 5. She dresses neat. 6. I am that hungry I could eat any 
thing. 7. He was exceeding glad to hear from you. 

Observe and correct all inaccuracies in the use of adverbs in your 
own conversation and that of your school-mates. 



Questions. — What is an adverb? Into how many classes are 
adverbs divided ? What are adverbs of time f Of place ? Of man- 
nerf Of degree? What is an adverbial phrase? What are con- 
junctive adverbs? Are adverbs ever compared? How are three 
adverbs compared? How are adverbs ending in ly compared? 
How are other adverbs compared? 

Repeat the order of parsing an adverb. 

Repeat the cautions. 



THE PREPOSITION. 
86. General Remarks. 

1. The relations between objects of thought are sometimes 
so obvious that they need no expression. This occurs when 
nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or value follow 7 
verbs or adjectives; as, "He left yesterday"; "He lives south 



124 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

of this town". Such words are said to be in the objective case 
without a governing word. 

The names of things following the passive forms of the 
verbs ask, lend, teach, refuse, provide, and some others are also 
in the objective case without a governing word; as, "I was 
asked a question"; "I was taught grammar", 

3. A phrase commencing with a preposition is called a 
prepositional phrase, 

4. The infinitive is usually called a phrase. 

5. The words of some phrases need not be separated in 
parsing ; as, in vain, on high, round and round, in general, &c. 
Parse such combinations as single words. 

87. Order of Parsing. 

1. A Preposition, and why? 

2. What relation does it show? 

3. Rule. 

88. Model for Parsing. 

" They went aboard the ship." 
Aboard is a preposition; it shows the relation between its object 
and some other word : it shows the relation between 
"ship" and "went". Rule XIX. "A preposition shows 
the relation of its object to the word upon which the 
latter depends." 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns and prep- 
ositions : 

1. A lark reared her brood amid the corn. 2. They wan- 
dered in throngs down the valley. 3. Emma came from the 
village, through the woods, to our house. 4. We have seen the 



CONJUNCTIONS. 125 

moon rising behind the eastern pines. 5. I came from beyond 
Eichmond to-day. (Parse " to-day" in the objective case 
without a governing word, by Eule VIII.) 6. I went to De- 
troit yesterday. 

7. The locust by the wall 

Stabs the noon-silence with his sharp alarm. 
A single hay-cart down the dusty road 
Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep 
On the load's top. — Whittier. ' 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on "our Flagr", 
and parse the prepositions. 

Write the answers to three questions in your arithmetic lesson, 
and parse the prepositions. 

Parse all the prepositions in three sentences of your reading 



Questions. — What is a preposition ? Do the relations between 
objects of thought always need expression? When do they not 
need expression? What words are in the objective case without a 
governing word ? What is a prepositional phrase ? Can the words 
in all phrases be separated? How should such combinations be 
parsed ? 

Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 
89. Classes. 

1. Conjunctions are divided into three classes : 
Copulative, Disjwictive, and Correlative. 

2. Copulative Conjunctions join on words, phrases, 
or members denoting addition, consequence, cause, or 
supposition. 



126 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — And, also, as, because, consequently, even, for, if, 
so, since, seeing, than, that, then, moreover, therefore, 
wherefore. 

3. disjunctive Conjunctions join on words, phrases, 
or members denoting opposition of meaning. 

Ex. — Although, though, but, either, neither, except, lest, 
nor, notwithstanding, or, provided, save, still, unless, whether, 
whereas, yet. 

4. Correlative Conjunctions are copulatives or dis- 
junctives used in pairs, one referring or answering to 
the other. 

Ex. — Both — and, as — as, so — as, so — that, either — or, 
neither — nor, if — then, though — yet, nevertheless, not 
only — but also, whether — -or, or — or, nor — nor. 

Rem. — Suc'h combinations as as if as though, as well as, 
as soon as, forasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but lilce- 
ivise, not only, &c, should be parsed as single conjunctions or 
conjunctive adverbs. 



90. Order of Parsing. 

1. A Conjunction, and why? 

2. Copulative, Disjunctive, or Correlative, and why? 

3. What does it connect? Kule. 



91. Models for Parsing. 

I. " Ellen and Mary study algebra." 
And. . . is a conjunction; it connects words: copulative; it de- 
notes addition: it connects "Emma" and "Mary". 
Rule XX. " Conjunctions connect words, phrases, arid 
sentences." 



THE INTERJECTION. 127 

II. " Neither Ellen nor Mary learned the lesson. " 
Xeither . . . nor . . . are conjunctions; (why?) : correlative; one 
refers or answers to the other, "neither" introduces the 
sentence, and "nor" connects "Ellen" and "Mary": 
Rule XX. 

EXERCISES. 
Analyze the following sentences, and parse the conjunctions : 

1. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 2. He came and 
went like a pleasant thought. 3. Wisdom is the principal 
thing; therefore get wisdom. 4. We can not thrive unless we 
are industrious. 5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 
him. 6. He was not only proud, but vain also. 

Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Popping 
Corn", and parse the conjunctions. 

Parse all the conjunctions in three sentences of your reading 



Questions. — What is a conjunction? Into how many classes 
are conjunctions divided? What are copulative conjunctions? 
Disjunctive conjunctions? Correlative conjunctions? How should 
as if y not only, &c, be parsed ? 

Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. 



THE INTERJECTION. 
92. Remarks. 

1. Interjections are expressions of emotion only. 
They are called interjections' because they are thrown 
in between connected parts of discourse, though gen- 
erally found at the commencement of a sentence. 

2. Most words when used as exclamations may be treated 
as interjections ; as, "What! art thou mad? " "Revenge! cried 
he". 



128 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



93. Order of Parsing. 

1. An Interjection, and why? 

2. Eule. 



94. Model for Parsing. 

"Eh! are you sure of it?" 
Eli! .... is an interjection ; it denotes some sudden emotion. 
Rule XXI. "An interjection has no dependence upon 
other words." 

EXERCISES. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences: 

1. Hah! it is a sight to freeze one! 2. Ah! ha! you 
thought me blind, did you? 3. O ! O ! 'tis foul ! 4. O excel- 
lent young man ! 5. Alas, what have I seen or known ! 6. 
Mercy, how it burns ! 7. Fie upon thee ! 8. Soft ! I did but 
dream. 9. Tush ! tush ! man, I made no reference to you. 



Questions. — What is an interjection? Why is it called an 
interjection ? 

Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. 



95. Simple and Compound Sentences. 

"Wheat is a vegetable." This sentence consists of a single 
proposition. It is called a Simple Sentence. 

1. A Simple Sentence consists of a single prop- 
osition. 

"Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it." This sen- 
tence consists of two propositions, each of which will make 
complete sense when standing alone. It is called a Compound 

Sentence. 



SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 129 

2. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more 
connected sentences, each of which will make complete 
sense when standing alone. 

Rem. — The sentences of which a compound sentence is 
composed are called Members. 

Model for Analysis. 

" Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil." 

This is a sentence; (why?): compound; it consists of two con- 
nected sentences, each of which will make complete sense when 
standing alone. " Lead us not into temptation " is the first mem- 
ber; "deliver us from evil", the second member. 

Thou, understood, is the subject of the first member ; lead, the 
predicate. "Lead" is modified by us, an objective element; by 
not, an adverbial element ; and by the phrase, into temptation, 
an adverbial element. 

Thou, understood, is the subject of the second member : de- 
liver, the predicate. " Deliver " is modified by us, an objective 
element, and by the phrase, from evil, an adverbial element. 

EXERCISES, 

1. Night comes to our bed, and breathes it in our ears. 2. 
He lived for his love — for his country he died. 3. Art is 
long, and time is fleeting, 4. You must reform, or you will be 
ruined. 

5. She raised her glazed eyes, and looked about with a 
faint wildness. 6. The dignity of woman has its peculiar 
character; it awes more than that of man. 7. The earth is 
hidden yet, but not dead. 8. It is th£ day of man's trial, not 
the time of his reward. 

Write five compound sentences, each containing two members. 

Ascertain what sentences in your reading lesson are compound. 
E. G— 9. 



130 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Questions. — What is a simple sentence? A compound sen- 
tence ? What are the parts of a compound sentence called ? 



98. Complex Sentences. 

The sentence, "I know where gold is found" contains two 
propositions: "I know" and "where gold is found". The 
conjunctive adverb "where" connects these propositions, mod- 
ifying "know" in the first, and "is found" in the second. 

These propositions are called Clauses. (See section 26.) 

The first clause, "I know", makes complete sense when 
standing alone, and is therefore called the leading or principal 
clause. 

1. A Principal Clause is one which makes com- 
plete sense when separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

The second clause, "where gold is found", does not make 
complete sense when standing alone, and is therefore called a 
dependent or subordinate clause. 

2. A Subordinate Clause is one which does not 
make complete sense when separated from the rest of 
the sentence. 

Rem. — All the elements of a sentence may be clauses : 
hence, there are Subject, Predicate, Objective, Adjective, and 
Adverbial Clauses. 

3. A Complex Sentence consists of a principal 
clause, some part of which is modified by one or more 
subordinate clauses. 

Rem. — When a complex sentence contains many clauses, 
each clause should be separately analyzed in the order indi- 
cated by its position. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 131 

Models for Analysis. 

I. "He dared to lead where any dared to follow." 
This is a sentence; (why?): complex; it is composed of a prin- 
cipal and a subordinate clause. "He dared to lead" is the prin- 
cipal clause, and "where any dared to follow", the subordinate 
clause. 

He is the subject of the principal clause; (why?): dared, the 
predicate; (why?). "Dared" is modified by the phrase, to lead, 
an objective element: "to lead" is modified by the adverbial 
clause, where any dared to follow, of which, any is the sub- 
ject, dared, the predicate, and the phrase, to follow, the object, 
which is modified by where, an adverbial element. "Where" is 
also a connective, joining the subordinate clause to "to lead", the 
object of the principal clause. 

II. "He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips." 

This is a sentence; (why?): complex; (why?). "He dissem- 
bleth with his lips" is the principal, and "that hateth", the sub- 
ordinate clause. 

He is the subject of the principal clause; (why?): dissem- 
bleth, the predicate; (why?). "He" is modified by the clause, 
that hateth, an adjective element, of which that is the subject, 
and hateth, the predicate: "dissembleth" is modified by the 
phrase, with his lips, an adverbial element: "lips" by his, an 
adjective element. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He that flattereth, deceiveth his neighbor. 2. The boy 
that you saw is my younger brother. 3. He is frightened 
when it thunders. 4. I can not study where there is much 
noise. 5. I would pay you, if I had the money. 6. Was that 
man whom you addressed, your guardian? 7. He is a good 
man, though very eccentric. 

8. Nature never did betray 

The heart that loved her. — Wordsworth. 



182 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

9. The poor too often turn away, unheard, 

From hearts that shut against them, with a sound 
That shall be heard in heaven. — Longfellow. 

Write five sentences, using clauses as subjects. 
Model. — " Haste makes waste " is a true saying. 

Write five sentences, using clauses as predicates. 
Model. — The rumor is, that Mr. Judson has failed. 

Write five sentences, using clauses as objects. 
Model. — I believe that the earth is round. 

Write five sentences, using clauses as adjective elements. 

Model. — The report that he is insane, is unfounded. 

Write five sentences, using clauses as adverbial elements. 

Model. — Our teacher is delighted when we are studious. 



Questions. — What is a clause ? A principal clause? A sub- 
ordinate clause ? A complex sentence ? How many elements of a 
sentence may be complex? How many kinds of clauses are there? 



97. Modified Subject and Predicate. 

1. The Crrammatical Subject of a proposition is 
the unmodified subject. 

Ex. — "A great storm is raging." " Storm" is the gram- 
matical subject. 

2. The Complex or ILogical Subject is the gram- 
matical subject, taken with all its modifiers. 

Ex. — "A great storm is raging." "A great storm" is the 
logical subject. "He who runs may read." "He who runs" 
is the logical subject. 



ELLIPSIS. 133 

3. The Grammatical Predicate of a proposition 
is the unmodified predicate. 

Ex. — "The storm rages furiously." "Rages" is the gram- 
matical predicate. 

4. The Complex or logical Predicate is the gram- 
matical predicate, taken with all its modifiers. 

Ex. — "The storm rages furiously." "Rages furiously" is 
the logical predicate. "The wind blows with great violence." 
"Blows with great violence" is the logical predicate; "blows" 
is the grammatical predicate. 

Rem. — All the parts of a sentence may be simple or com- 
plex; but it is not necessary, in analysis, to distinguish them 
as such. The distinction, however, may be observed with the 
subject and predicate. 

Point out the grammatical and logical subjects and predi- 
cates in any of the preceding sentences. 

Write the first two sentences of Ci composition on "Coasting", 
and point out the grammatical and logical subjects and 
predicates. 

Questions. — What is the grammatical subject of a proposition? 
The complex or logical subject? The grammatical predicate? 
The complex or logical predicate ? 



98. Ellipsis. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words 
of a sentence. The words omitted are said to be un- 
derstood. 

Rem. — If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted 
must be supplied. 



134 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

2. All but the most important part of a sentence 
may be omitted. 

1. Nouns may be omitted; as, "Ye are Christ's [dis- 
ciples] ". 

2. Pronouns maybe omitted; as, "Come [thou]". 

3. Adjectives may be omitted; as, "A slate and [a] pen- 
cil"-; "That kind of exercise may be good for you, but not 
[good] for me". 

4. Participles may be omitted; as, "This [being] done, 
we resumed our journey 7 '. 

5. Verbs may be omitted; as, "I'll [go] hence to Lon- 
don"; "[To be] England's friend [is to be] Ireland's foe". 

6. Adverbs may be omitted; as, "He acted honorably, but 
you did not [act honorably]". 

7. Prepositions and Conjunctions may be omitted ; as, 
"He gave [to] me an orange"; "A good, [and] wise, and 
truthful friend". 

8. Entire Phrases and Clauses may be omitted; as, "You 
have more to do than you can accomplish; I, less [to do than 
lean accomplish]". 



Questions. — What is ellipsis ? When are words said to be un- 
derstood? What parts of a sentence may be omitted? 



99. Abridgment. 

1. Complex Sentences are often changed into sim- 
ple ones by abridging their subordinate clauses. 

Hem. — This is done by dropping the subject or changing its 
case, and by changing the copula or verbal predicate to an 
infinitive or a participle. 



ABRIDGMENT. 135 

Ex.-'I believe that he is insane", is equivalent to, "I believe 
him to be insane". "When the mayor arrived, the rabble dis- 
persed", is equivalent to, "The mayor having arrived, the rabble 
dispersed". 

2. In analyzing, let the pupil expand each abridged clause 
into a complete proposition, and state its office or use in the 
sentence. 



Models for Analysis. 

I. "Forward!" 

This is a sentence; (why?) : its subject and predicate are omitted 
by ellipsis. It is equivalent to, " March ye forward ! " Ye is the 
subject; (why?): march, the predicate; (why?). " March" is 
modified by forward, an adverbial element. 

II. "The snow being deep, we could not proceed." 

This is a sentence; (why?). We is the subject; (why?): could 
proceed, the predicate; (why?). "Could proceed" is modified 
by not, an adverbial element, and by the absolute phrase, 4ne 
snow being; deep, an adverbial element, equivalent to, "be- 
cause the snow was deep". Snow" is modified by the and 
being deep, both adjective elements. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Attention ! 2. On, Stanley, on ! 3. A rope to the side ! 

4. Magnificent! 5. How now, my old friend. 6. Honest, my 

lord? 7. Better late than never. 8. Are you cold? — Some- 
what. 

9. No rain having fallen, the crops were destroyed. 10. 
There is no danger of his falling. 11. The storm continuing, 
we dropped anchor. 12. Having led an active life, he could 
not endure confinement. 13. Being human, he is not perfect. 
14. Honor "being lost, all is lost 



136 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



100. Rules of Syntax. 

1. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of 
the construction of sentences. 

Rem. — All the exercises in the formation of sentences, in 
this work, are exercises in syntax. 

2. A Kule of Syntax is a statement of the man- 
ner in which words should be used in sentences. 

Utile Ic The subject of a proposition is in the nom r 
inative case. 

Rem. — Any thing that may be used as a noun may be the sub- 
ject; as, "A is a vowel"; " To play is pleasant"; " That the times 
are hard is undeniable". 

Utile Ho A noun or pronoun used as the predicate 
of a proposition, is in the nominative case. 

Rem. — A noun or pronoun used as the predicate, denotes the 
same person or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case, 
and generally in number and person. 

Hole III. A noun or pronoun, used to limit the 
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, 
is in the possessive case. 

Rem. 1. — The limited noun is sometimes omitted; as, "We 
visited St. Paul's [church]" 

Rem. 2. — The limited noun need not be plural because the 
possessive is plural; as, "Their intention was good". 

Mule IV. A noun or pronoun, used to limit the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same per- 
son or thing, is in the same case. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 137 

Rem. 1. — A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and a 
sentence with a noun; as, "He is dangerously ill — a fact that can 
not be denied"; "Remember Franklin's maxim, 'God helps them 
that help themselves'". 

Rem. 2. — A word in apposition with another, is frequently in- 
troduced by as or or; as, "As mayor of the city, I feel aggrieved " ; 
"mayor" being in apposition with "I": "Maize, or Indian com, 
is extensively cultivated". 

Utile V. A noun or pronoun used independently is 
in the absolute case. 

Mule TI, The object of a transitive verb in the act- 
ive voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case. 

Rem. 1. — A phrase beginning with a noun or pronoun may be 
the object of a transitive verb ; as, "I want friends to love". 

Rem. 2. — Some verbs have two objects, one representing a per- 
son, the other a thing; as, "He asked me a question". When such 
verbs are used in the passive voice, if the thing is made nomina- 
tive, the person is governed by a preposition, expressed or under- 
stood : if the person is made nominative, the thing is in the object- 
ive case without a governing word. 

Rem. 3. — A noun or pronoun following the infinitive to be, is 
frequently in the objective case in apposition with a word which 
precedes it; as, "I did not think it to be him"; "him" is in ap- 
position with "it": "Whom do you take me to be?" "whom" is 
in apposition with "me". 

Rule VH. The object of a preposition is in the ob- 
jective case. 

Utile VIM. Nouns denoting time, distance, measure, 
or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the objective 
case without a governing word. 

Ex. — "He came home yesterday." Both "home" and "yester- 
day" are in the objective case without a governing word. 



138 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — Nouns and pronouns following the passive forms of cer- 
tain verbs, are in the objective case without a governing word ; as, 
"I was taught grammar"; "He was offered a situation". 

Rule IX. Pronouns must agree with their anteced- 
ents in gender, person, and number. 

Rem. — A pronoun used instead of a collective noun, denoting 
unity, should be in the neuter singular : one used instead of a col- 
lective noun, denoting plurality, should be plural, taking the gen- 
der of the individuals composing the collection. 

Kule X. A pronoun, with two or more antecedents 
in the singular, connected by and, must be plural. 

Rem. — When the antecedents are the names of the same person 
or thing, the pronoun must be singular : when they are limited 
by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular : when the 
antecedents, taken together, are regarded as a single thing, the 
pronoun must be singular. 

Ex. — "The patriot and statesman receives his reward"; "Each 
officer, each private, did his duty"; " Bread and milk is healthy 
food". 

Utile XI. A noun or pronoun, with two or more 
antecedents in the singular, connected by or or nor, 
must be singular. 

Rem. — When one of the antecedents is plural, it should be 
placed last, and the pronoun should be plural; as, "Neither the 
farmer nor his sons were aware of their danger ". 

Mule XII. An adjective or participle belongs to 
some noun or pronoun. 

Rem. — An adjective used as a predicate belongs to the subject. 

Mule XIII. A verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 139 

Rule XIV. A verb, with two or more subjects in 
the singular, connected by and, must be plural. 

Item. — When two or more subjects in the singular are but dif- 
ferent names for the same thing, the verb should be singular; as, 
"Descent and fall to us is adverse." When two or more singular 
subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb should be singu- 
lar ; as, " Every bird and beast cowers before the wild blast." 

Rule XV. A verb, with two or more subjects in the 
singular, connected by or or no?% must be singular. 

Rule XVI. An infinitive may be used as a noun in 
any case except the possessive. 

Rem. — The sign to should never be separated from the rest of 
the infinitive. " To rapidly write" should be, " To write rapidly". 

Rule XVII. An infinitive not used as a noun, de- 
pends upon the word it limits. 

Rem. — An infinitive may depend upon any of the parts of 
speech, except the preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 

Rule XVHI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par- 
ticiples, and adverbs. 

Rem. — Adverbs also modify phrases and entire propositions; 
as, "He lives just around the corner"; u Verily, ye are the 
people". 

Rule XIX. A preposition shows the relation of its 
object to the word upon which the latter depends. 

Rule XX. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
members, and clauses. 

Rule XXI. Interjections have no dependence upon 
other words. 



140 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

101. Miscellaneous Exercises. 

1. She saw a glory in each cloud. 2. Still waters are com- 
monly deepest. 3. To-morrow may be brighter than to-day. 
4. Few days pass without some clouds. 5. She made acquaint- 
ance with the birds that fluttered by. 6. It was a harper, 
wandering with his harp. 

7. How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber? 
8. At length the sun departed, setting in a sea of gold. 9. The 
smooth sea, the serenfe atmosphere, the mild zephyr, are the 
proper emblems of a gentle temper, and a peaceful life. 

10. 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past lives, 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 

11. The night, methinks, is but the daylight sick. 12. Evils 
have been more painful to us in the prospect than in the ac- 
tual pressure. 13. A written or printed paper, posted in a 
public place, is called a placard. 14. Few are qualified to 
shine in company ; but it is in most men's power to be agree- 
able. 

15. How often have I blessed the coming day, 
When toil remitting lent its turn to play, 
And all the village train, from labor free, 
Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree. 

Goldsmith, 

16. Alas, we think not that we daily see 
About our hearths, angels that are to be, 
Or may be if they will. — Leigh Hunt. 

17. The insect tribe are here : the ant toils on 
With its white burden ; in its netted web 
Gray glistening o'er the bush, the spider lurks, 
A close-crouched ball, out-darting as a hum 

Tells its trapped pray, and looping quick its threads, 
Chains into helplessness the buzzing wings. — Street. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 141 

18. Princes have but their titles for their glories; 

An outward honor for an inward toil. — Shakspeare. 

19. My soul is an enchanted boat, 
Which, like a sleeping swan, doth float 

Upon the silver waves of thy sweet singing; 

And thine doth like an angel sit 

Beside the helm conducting it, 
While all the winds with melody are ringing. — Shelley. 

20. The year leads round the seasons in a choir 
Forever charming and forever new, 
Blending the grand, the beautiful, the gay, 

The mournful and the tender in one strain. — Percival. 

21. King David's limbs were weary. He had fled 
From far Jerusalem ; and now he stood, 
With his faint people, for a little rest 

Upon the shores of Jordan. The light wind 
Of morn was stirring, and he bared his brow 
To its refreshing breath ; for he had worn 
The mourner's covering, and he had not felt 
That he could see his people until now. — Willis. 

22. One hour beheld him since the tide he stemmed, 
Disguised, discovered, conquering, ta'en, condemned, 
A chief on land, an outlaw on the deep, 
Destroying, saving, prisoned, and asleep. — Byron. 

23. Who e'er, amidst the sons 
Of reason, valor, liberty, and virtue, 
Displays distinguished merit, is a noble 
Of Nature's own creating. — Thomson. 

24. He that attends to his interior self, 

That has a heart, and keeps it ; has a mind 
That hungers, and supplies it ; and who seeks 
A social, not a dissipated life, 
Has business. — Coivper. 



142 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

25. The timid it concerns to ask their way, 

And fear what foe in caves and swamps may stay ; 

To make no step until the event is known, 

And ills to come, as evils past, bemoan. 

Not so the wise ; no coward watch he keeps, 

To spy what danger on his pathway creeps. 

Go where he will, the wise man is at home — 

His hearth the earth, his hall the azure dome. — Emerson. 

26. Every worm beneath the moon 

Draws different threads, and late or soon 
Spins toiling out his own cocoon. — Tennyson. 

27. Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, 
With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun, 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glistening with dew. — Milton. 

28. The day hath gone to God, — 

Straight — like an infant's spirit, or a mocked 
And mourning messenger of grace to man. — Bailey. 

29. It is a little thing to speak a phrase 

Of common comfort, which, by daily use, 

Has almost lost its sense ; yet on the ear 

Of him who thought to die unmourned, 'twill fall 

Like choicest music. — Talfourd. 

30. Labor is life ! 'T is the still water faileth ; 
Idleness ever despaireth, bewaileth ; 

Keep the watch wound, for the dark rust assaileth; 
Flowers droop and die in the stillness of noon. 

Frances S. Osgood. 



QUESTIONS FOE- REVIEW. 



143 



102. Questions for Review. 



What is a noun ? A common 
noun ? A proper noun ? What 
•belong to nouns ? 

What is gender ? How many 
genders are there ? What is the 
masculine gender? The femi- 
nine gender ? The common gen- 
der ? The neuter gender ? How 
many ways of distinguishing the 
masculine and feminine genders? 
Give them. 

W T hat is person ? How many 
persons are there ? Define them. 

What is number? How many 
numbers are there ? What is the 
singular number? The plural 
number? Repeat the rules for 
the formation of the plural. 

What is case? How many 
cases are there? What is the 
nominative case? The possess- 
ive case ? How is the possessive 
singular formed ? The possess- 
ive plural ? What is the object- 
ive case? The absolute case? 
In how many ways may a noun 
be in the absolute case? 

What is declension ? What is 
parsing? Repeat the order of 
parsing a noun. 

What is a pronoun? A per- 
sonal pronoun? What are the 
simple personal pronouns? The 
compound personal pronouns ? 
When pronouns of different per- 



sons are used, how should they be 
arranged ? Decline the personal 
pronouns. Repeat the order of 
parsing a personal pronoun. 

What are the possessive pro- 
nouns? How is emphatic dis- 
tinction denoted? Repeat the 
order of parsing a possessive pro- 
noun. 

What is a relative pronoun? 
What are the simple relatives? 
The compound relatives? To 
what is "what" equivalent? 
" Whoever ? " " Whichever ? " 
" Whoso" and "Whosoever?" 
Decline "who" and " which". 
What is a relative clause? Re- 
peat the order of parsing a rel- 
ative pronoun. 

What are the interrogative 
pronouns? What is the subse- 
quent of an interrogative pro- 
noun ? With what must an in- 
terrogative agree in gender, per- 
son and number? Repeat the 
order of parsing an interrogative 
pronoun. Repeat the "cautions" 
in section 57. 

What is an adjective? A de- 
scriptive adjective ? A definitive 
adjective ? What is comparison ? 
Hoav many degrees are there? 
What is the positive degree? 
What does the suffix ish denote? 
What is the comparative degree? 



144 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



How is it regularly formed? 
What is the superlative degree? 
How is it regularly formed? 
How are some adjectives com- 
pared ? 

What are pronominal adjec- 
tives? Name some of the prin- 
cipal pronominals. What is said 
of the phrases such a, &c. ? What 
are numeral adjectives? Cardi- 
nal numerals ? Ordinal numer- 
als? Multiplicative numerals? 
Repeat the order of parsing an 
adjective. Repeat the "cau- 
tions " in section 62. 

What is a verb ? A transitive 
verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
copulative verb ? 

What is a participle? The 
present participle ? How does the 
present participle always end? 
What is the perfect participle? 
How does it usually end ? What 
is the compound participle? 
How is it formed ? 

What belong to verbs ? W T hat 
is voice ? How many voices have 
transitive verbs? What is the 
active voice ? The passive voice ? 
How is the passive voice formed ? 
How is a verb in the active voice 
changed into the passive ? 

What is mode ? How many 
modes are there? Name them. 
What is the indicative mode? 
The subjunctive mode ? The po- 
tential mode? The imperative 
mode? The infinitive mode? 
What are the signs of the po- 



tential mode? What is the sign 
of the infinitive mode ? When is 
it omitted ? 

What is tense? How many 
tenses are there? What is the 
present tense ? The present per- 
fect ? The past ? The past per- 
fect? The future? The future 
perfect? Give the signs of the 
tenses. 

What is said of the person and 
number of verbs? With what 
must a verb agree in person and 
number? 

What are auxiliary verbs? 
Name them. W T hich of them are 
sometimes used as principal 
verbs? What is a unipersonal 
verb? 

What is conjugation? What 
are the principal parts of a verb? 
What is the synopsis of a verb ? 
Give the synopsis of "to be". 
Of "to love", in both voices. 
What are the coordinate forms 
of conjugation? The progress- 
ive form? The emphatic form? 
The interrogative form? Give 
the synopsis of each form. 

W T hat is a regular verb? An 
irregular verb? A defective 
verb ? A redundant verb ? Re- 
peat the order of parsing a verb. 
Repeat the "cautions" in sec- 
tion 81. 

What is an adverb ? Into how 
many classes can adverbs be di- 
vided? What are adverbs of 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 



145 



time? Of place? Of cause? 
Of manner ? Of degree ? What 
is an adverbial phrase? What 
are conjunctive adverbs ? How 
are adverbs compared ? Repeat 
the order of parsing an adverb. 
Repeat the "cautions" in sec- 
tion S6. 

What is a preposition? A 
prepositional phrase? Repeat 
the order of parsing a preposi- 
tion. 

What is a conjunction ? Into 
how many classes are conjunc- 
tions divided ? What are copu- 
lative conjunctions? Disjunct- 
ive conjunctions ? Correlative 
conjunctions? Repeat the order 
of parsing a conjunction. 

What is an interjection? Re- 
peat the order of parsing an in- 
terjection. 

What is a simple sentence? 
A compound sentence? What 
are the parts of a compound sen- 
tence called? 

What is a clause? A principal 
clause? A subordinate clause? 
A complex sentence? How many 
elements of a sentence may be 
complex? How many kinds of 
clauses are there ? 

What is the grammatical sub- 
ject of a proposition ? The logi- 
cal subject? The grammatical 



predicate? The logical predi- 
cate ? 

What is ellipsis ? What parts 
of speech may be omitted? 

How are complex sentences 
changed into simple ones? 

What is syntax? What is a 
rule of syntax ? Repeat the rule 
for the subject of a proposition. 
For a noun or pronoun used as 
predicate. For the possessive 
case. For the "same case". For 
the absolute case. For the ob- 
jective case after transitive verbs. 
For the object of a preposition. 
For nouns denoting time, dis- 
tance, measure, or value. 

Repeat the rule for the gender, 
person, and number of pronouns. 
For pronouns with two or more 
antecedents connected by and. 
Connected by or or nor. 

Repeat the rule for adjectives 
and participles. 

Repeat the rule for the num- 
ber and person of verbs. For 
verbs with subjects connected by 
and. Connected by or or noi\ 
For the infinitive used as a noun. 
For the infinitive not used as a 
noun. 

Repeat the rule for adverbs. 
For prepositions. For conjunc- 
tions. For interjections. 



E. a.— 10. 



146 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

PART IV. 
PUNCTUATION. 

103. Definition. 

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written dis- 
course into sentences and parts of sentences, by 
means of points or marks. 

2. The principal marks used in punctuation are the 
following : 



Comma, 9 

Semicolon, . . . f 

Colon, . . . . t 

Period, . . . . e 

Interrogation Point, ? 



Exclamation Point, I 

Dash, .... — 

Curves, . . . ( ) 

Brackets, . . . " ] 



104. The Comma. 

The Comma denotes the slightest degree of sep- 
aration between the parts of a sentence. 

Ri*ie I. Two or more nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, or 
adverbs, in the same construction, should be separated by 
commas. 

Ex. — 1. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are called the 
seasons. 2. You, he, and I were boys together. 3. David was a 
brave, wise, and pious man. 4. In a letter, we may advise, ex- 
hort, comfort, request, and discuss. 5. Success depends upon our 
acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 



PUNCTUATION. 147 

Rule II. The members of a compound ' sentence, when 
short, and connected by conjunctions, should be separated by 
commas. 

Ex. — He was not fond of the technical language of metaphys- 
ics, but he had grappled, like the giant he was, with its most for- 
midable problems. — Everett. 

Rule in. Two correlative clauses should be separated by 
commas. 

Ex. — As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive. 

Rule iv. Each couplet of words arranged in pairs should 
be set off by commas. 

Ex. — Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my heart 
to this vote. 

Rule v. Words placed in opposition to each other should 
be separated by commas. 

Ex. — Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. 

Rem. — This rule applies, also, to phrases and clauses placed in 
opposition or antithesis to each other. 

Rule VI. When a verb is omitted, its place is usually sup- 
plied by a comma. 

Ex. — War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. 

Rule vii. Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are usu- 
ally set off by commas. 

Ex. — 1. Integrity is, no doubt, the first requisite. 2. Whom ye 
ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you. 

Rule Viil. Adverbs used independently, or modifying an 
entire proposition, should be set off by commas. 

Ex. — Indeed, you must wait awhile. 

Rule IX. Nouns and pronouns in the absolute case by ple- 
onasm or direct address, should be separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas. 



148 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Ex.— 1. Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal 
joys. 2. Take, O boatman, thrice thy fee ! 

Kule X. Nouns in apposition, modified by other words than 
the, should be set off by commas. 

Ex. — The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 

Rein. — Nouns in apposition, introduced by or or as, should be 
set off by commas. 

Kule XI. A direct quotation should be set off by commas. 

Ex. — Quoth the raven, "Nevermore". 

Kule xii. Words repeated for emphasis should be set off 
by commas. 

Ex. — Verily, verily, I say unto you. 

105. The Semicolon. 

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation 
greater than that denoted by the comma. 

Rule I. The semicolon should be used before as, namely, &c, 
introducing an example or an illustration. 

Ex. — There are four seasons ; namely, spring, summer, autumn, 
and winter. 

Kule ii. Clauses having a common dependence should be 
separated by semicolons. 

Ex. — Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from wordly 
affairs is not what religion requires ; nor does it even enjoin a long 
retreat from them. 

Kule in. Semicolons should separate the members of com- 
pound sentences, if the connective is omitted, or if their parts 
are separated by commas. 

Ex. — 1. Straws swim upon the surface; pearls lie at the bot- 
tom. 2. Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her 



PUNCTUATION. 149 

operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future gen- 
erations will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not 
the least idea. 

106. The Colon. 

The Colon denotes a degree of separation greater 
than that indicated by the semicolon. 

Rule I. The colon should precede an example or a lengthy 
quotation, and follow the introduction to a speech. 

Ex. — The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
Deity in these words: "God is love J '. 

Hale ii. The members of a compound sentence, whose parts 
are set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons. 

Ex. — We do not say that his error lies in being a good mem- 
ber of society; this, though only a circumstance at present, is a 
very fortunate one : the error lies in his having discarded the 
authority of God as his legislator ; or, rather, in his not having 
admitted the influence of that authority over his mind, heart, or 
practice. 

107. The Period. 

# 

The Period denotes the greatest degree of sep- 
aration. 

Rule i. The period should be placed at the end of a 
declarative or imperative sentence. 

Ex. — 1. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 2. Walk 
quietly. 

Rule II. The period should be used after every abbrevi- 
ated word. 

Ex.— H. G. Lloyd, Esq.; Mich., Ind., 111.; Ps. lxxv, 6, 7; 
Chap. XIV. 



150 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

108, Interrogation Point. 

The Interrogation Point denotes that a question 
is asked. 

Ex. — 1. Where is Singapore? 2. Do you own this farm? 

109. Exclamation Point. 

The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emo- 
tion. 

Rule i. The exclamation point should be placed after ex- 
pressions denoting strong emotion. 

Ex. — Alas, poor Yorick ! Fie on you ! 

110. The Dash. 

The ©ash is a straight, horizontal line, placed be- 
tween the parts of a sentence. 

Rule I. The dash should be used where a sentence breaks 
off abruptly, or where there is a change in its meaning or 
construction. 

Ex. — Dim — dim — I faint — darkness comes over me. 2. If 
thou art he, so much respected once— but oh! how fallen! how 
degraded ! 

Rale II. The dash is frequently used before and after a 
parenthesis. 

Ex. — They see three of the cardinal virtues of dog or man — 
courage, endurance, and skill — in intense action. 

Rem. — The dash is frequently used where there is an omission 
of letters or figures; as, L — d N— h; i. e, Lord North: Ps. xxxv, 
6—10 ; i. e., Ps. xxxv, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 



PUNCTUATION. 151 

111. The Curves. 

The Curves include an expression which has no 
necessary connection, in sense or construction, with 
the sentence in which it is inserted. 

Kule I. The curves should include those words which may 
be omitted without injury to the sense. 

Ex. — Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. — Pope. 

Rem. — The curves sometimes include letters or figures used to 
enumerate subjects or divisions of a subject; as, "(a) What it 
does ; ( b ) What it is." 

112. The Brackets. 

Brackets are used to include words, phrases, or 
clauses explaining what precedes them, or correcting 
an error. 

Ex. — 1. They [the Indians] are fast disappearing. 2. I dif- 
fer with [from] you in opinion. 

113. Other Marks used in Writing. 

I. The Apostrophe [ 5 ] is used to denote the omission of 
one or more letters, or to mark the possessive case ; as, 
"You're mistaken"; "The Queen's English". 

II. The Hyphen [ = ] is used ( 1 ) to join the parts of com- 
pound words and expressions ; ( 2 ) to divide words into syl- 
lables ; ( 3 ) after a syllable at the end of a line, when the rest 
of the word is carried to the next line; as, "Nut-brown maid:" 
"con-fu-sion". 



152 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

III. Quotation Marks [ 66 5 * ] are used to show that a 
passage is taken verbatim from some author; as, "Shakspeare 
says, 'All the world's a stage" 7 . 

IV. The Index [ JiHg^ ] and Asterism [ * %* ] point out a 
passage to which special attention is called; as, "HS^Be punc- 
tual in your attendance at school". 

V. The Asterisk [*], the Obelisk or ©agger [ f ], the 
Double Bagger [J ], the Section [ § ], the Parallels [ || ], 
and the Paragraph [ \ ], refer to notes in the margin, or at 
the bottom of the page. 

VI. The Sraee [ . — ^— » ] connects a number of words with 
a common term. 

VII. The Paragraph [ f ] denotes the beginning of a new 
subject. 

VIII. The Section [ I ] denotes the divisions of a treatise. 

IX. The Caret [ a ] is used in writing to show that some- 
thing has been omitted. 

a not countries 

Ex. — The sesons are alike in all of the same region. 

A A A 

X. The Tilde [ ii ] annexes to n the sound of y ; as, carton, 
pronounced canyon: the Cedilla [ c ] gives to c the sound of s; 
as, fagade: the Macron [-] marks a long sound, as in tone: 
the Breve [<->], a short sound, as in ton: the ©ieresis [••] sep- 
arates two vowels into two syllables ; as, aeriform. 

XI. The Acute Accent [ ^ ] commonly denotes a sharp 
sound; the Grave Accent [ v ], a depressed sound; the Cir- 
cumflex Accent [ '" or "i ], a broad sound. 

Rem. — In most reading books, the acute accent denotes the 
rising inflection ; the grave accent, the falling inflection ; the cir- 
cumflex, a union of the acute and the grave. 



PUNCTUATION. 153 

Suggestion to Teaclaers. — Require pupils to give rules for 
the use of all the points found in their reading lesson. Select 
passages from good authors, and pronounce the words in consecu- 
tive order, as in a spelling lesson, without indicating the gram- 
matical construction by tone of voice or inflections. Let the pupils 
write these as pronounced, and separate them into sentences and 
parts of sentences by the proper points. 

Punctuate properly the following example, and observe the rules 
for the use of capitals: 

his personal appearance contributed to the attraction of his 
social intercourse his countenance frame expression and pres- 
ence arrested and fixed attention you could not pass him 
unnoticed in a crowd nor fail to observe in him a man of high 
mark and character no one could see him and not wish to see 
more of him and this alike in public and private. 

ediuard everelt, 



Questions. — What is punctuation? What are the principal 
marks used in punctuation? 

What does the comma denote? Repeat the rules for the use 
of the comma. 

What does the semicolon denote? Repeat the rules for its use. 

What does the colon denote? Repeat the rules for its use. 

What does the period denote? Repeat the rules for its use. 

What does the interrogation point denote? 

What does the exclamation point denote ? Repeat the rule for 
its use. 

What is the dash ? Repeat the rules for its use. 

What are the curves ? What should they include ? 

What are the brackets used to include? 

What does the apostrophe denote? For what purposes is the 
hyphen used ? The quotation marks ? The index and asterism ? 
The asterisk, &c? What does the brace connect? What does the 
paragraph denote ? The section ? 

For what purpose is the caret used? What does the tilde de- 
note? The cedilla? The macron? The breve? The dieresis? 
What does the acute accent denote ? The grave accent ? The cir- 
cumflex accent? What do these denote in most reading books? 



154 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

PART ¥. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 
114. Sounds — Letters, 

When we speak, we use sounds made by the voice. These 
sounds are called Elementary Sounds. 

1. An Elementary Sound is one which can not be 
separated into two or more distinct sounds. 

When we write, we represent these sounds by letters. 

2. A JLetter is a character used to represent an 
elementary sound, or a combination of elementary 
sounds ; as, a, x. 

115. Elementary Sounds. 

1. There are forty elementary sounds in the English lan- 
guage. They are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

2. Yowels, or Vocals, are those sounds which are 
made with the vocal organs open. They are also 
called Tonics. 

3. Consonants are obstructed sounds, or mere 
emissions of breath. They are subdivided into Sub- 
vocals and Aspirates. 

4. Subvoeals are those sounds w T hich are obstructed 
by the vocal organs, in the process of articulation. 
They are also called Subtonics. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



155 



5. Aspirates are mere emissions of breath. They 
are also called Atonies. 



116. Table of Elementary Sounds. 







Vowels. 




a long, 


as in . 


. . hate. 


i long, as in 


. . . time. 


a short, 


a 


. . hat. 


i short, " 


. . . tin. 


a middle, 


it 


. . ask. 


© long, " 


. . . cold. 


a Italian, 


u 


. . arm. 


o short, " 


. . . hot. 


a broad, 


u 


. . all. 


©o long, " 


. . . ooze. 


e long, 


u 


. . eve. 


oo short, " 


. . . book 


e short, 


il 


. . ell. 


u long, " 
n short, " 


. . . lute. 
. . . cup. 



Consonants. 



Subvocals. 



b, as in 

V, " 

m, 

d, " 

th, " 

J, " 

z, " 

zh, " 

1, " 

r, as in 

«, " 

g, " 



bib. 

save. 

way. 

am. 

lid. 

with. 

jar. 

size. 

azure. 

lull. 

roar. 

man. 

song. 

nag. 

yes. 



Aspirates. 



p, asm ... , 

f, " .... 

wk, " .... 
Has no corresponding 

ft, as in ... . 

tli, " .... 

eh, a .... 

S 5 .... 

sis, " . . . '. 

Has no corresponding 



It, as in . . . . 
Has no corresponding 



li, . as in.. 



lip. 

life. 

when, 
aspirate. 

tat. 

myth. 

church. 

hiss. 

hush, 
aspirate. 



kick. 

aspirate. 

how. 



156 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

117, Letters, 

1. There are twenty-six letters in the English al- 
phabet. They are used as either capital letters or as 
small letters. 

Hem. — Printers call small letters Zoiver-case. 

2. Two or more letters are sometimes joined to 
represent one or more sounds. 

3. A Diphthong consists of two vowels sounded together 
in the same syllable; as, ou, foul; oi, boil. 

4. A Digraph consists of two vowel letters written to- 
gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or 
both representing a single elementary sound ; as, aa, Canaan ; 
ai, gain. 

5. A Tri^rapln consists of three vowel letters written to- 
gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or 
the three together representing a single vowel sound, or diph- 
thong; as, aye, aye; awe, awe. 

6. A ©orafoie Consonant consists of two consonant letters 
written together in the same syllable, representing a single 
elementary sound ; as, ch, chord ; gh, laugh. 

7. A Silent letter is one which represents no sound; as, 
e in the word mute. 

118, Capital Letters, Italics, &c. 

I. The first word of every sentence should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Hem. — The word "that", commencing a sentence which 
follows an introductory word or clause, often begins with a 
capital letter; as, "Resolved, That section fourteen, &c." 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 157 

II. The first word of every line of poetry should 
begin with a capital letter. 

III. Proper names of persons, places, days, &c, 
should begin with capital letters. 

IV. Titles of honor or distinction should begin with 
capital letters. 

V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with 
capital letters. 

Rem. — Words used as substitutes for the name of the Deity 
sometimes begin with capitals ; as, " The Hand that made us 
is divine ". 

VI. Words denoting the race or nation of individ- 
uals should begin with capital letters. 

VII. Words derived from proper names should be- 
gin with capital letters. 

Rem. — When such words become common nouns, they 
should not begin with capital letters; as, a guinea; china- 
ware.. 

VIII. Words of special importance may begin with 
capital letters. 

Rem. — Common words used as names of particular objects 
become words of special importance, and should begin with 
capitals; as, the Garden City; Big Creek; the City of Brotherly 
Love; "Have you visited the Round Tower?" 

IX. I and 0, used as single words, should be capitals. 

X. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are fre- 
quently printed in italics. 

Rem. i. — Words requiring special emphasis are often 
printed in small capitals or capitals. 



158 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Remu 2. — Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied 
by translators to explain the original. 

Hem. 3. — In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word 
indicates italics ; two lines, small capitals ; three lines, 
CAPITALS. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

1. — the mornings are chilly, sugar is sweet, rainy weather 
is unpleasant, the snow was more than eight inches deep, 
hundreds of birds were singing in the park. 

2. — The day is past and gone; 

the evening shades appear, 
o may w r e all remember well 
the night of death is near. 

3. — edwin and james went to Chicago last may. The legis- 
lature meets on the first monday in January. Mr. smith left 
new york on Saturday the 22d of may. 

4. — Eli Hughes, esq.; Alexander the great; George the 
third; earl Kussell ; gen. Scott. Eli french, esq. argued the 
case for the defendant before judge Lynch. 

5. — Eemember thy creator. The lord shall endure forever. 
"I am the way, the truth, the life." God spake these words, 
and said : I am the lord thy god. 

6. — The french ; the mexicans ; the americans. " The gyp- 
sies wander about from place to place." The Spaniards were 
the first european nation that established colonies in america. 

7. — A russian serf; an italian sunset ; an african sun ; a 
Canadian winter, the foliage of australian trees is remark- 
able, the prussian army w r as provided with the best fire-arms, 
the commander of the russian forces was wounded. 

8. — The tariff bill ; the Missouri compromise ; the whisky 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 159 

insurrection. "I have just read ' homes without hands' and 
'the world before the deluge'." 

9; — i can 't remember these rules, o, how i wish school 
was out. there isn't any fun in sitting still all day. let's 
run away and see the circus come into town. 



119. Syllables— Words, 

1. A Syllable is a sound or combination of sounds 
uttered with one impulse of the voice; as, man, 
mcm-ner. 

Hem. 1. — Every syllable must contain a vowel. 

Rem. 2. — A syllable is analyzed by giving the sound repre- 
sented by each letter, except those which are silent. 

2. A Word may consist of one or more syllables. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, care, man. 

A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as, careful, 
man-ly. 

A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable; as, care-ful- 
ness, man-li-ness. 

A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable ; as, 
com-pla-cen-cy, ec-cen-tric-i-ty. 

3. A Primitive or Radical word is one in no way derived 
from another in the same language ; as, mind, faith. 

4. A Derivative word is one formed by joining to a prim- 
itive some letter or syllable to modify its meaning; as, re- 
mind, faithful. 

5. A Compound word is one formed by uniting two or 
more primitive or derivative words; as, man-worship, Anglo- 
Saxon. 



160 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

6. A Prefe is that part of a derivative word which is 
placed before the radical; as, re-call, sub-join, 

7. A Suffix is that part of a derivative word which is 
placed after the radical ; as, faith-/**/, change-able. 

8. Spelling is the art of forming words by arranging their 
letters in due order. 

The proper way of spelling words is best learned from 
spelling-books and dictionaries. 



Questions. — What is an elementary sound? A letter? How 
many elementary sounds are there in the English language ? How 
are they divided? What are vowels? What are they also called? 
What are consonants ? How are they subdivided ? What are sub- 
vocals? What are they also called? What are aspirates? What 
are they also called? 

How many letters in the English alphabet ? What is a diph- 
thong? A digraph? A trigraph? A double consonant? A silent 
letter ? 

Repeat the rales for the use of capital letters. 

What is a syllable ? What must every syllable contain ? How 
is a syllable analyzed? What is a monosyllable? A dissyllable? 
A trisyllable? A polysyllable? What is a primitive word? A 
derivative word? A compound word? A prefix? A sufiix? 
What is spelling? 



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